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Bibliography

Every source used on LinguaCommons, in Chicago-style format: image and flag credits first, then all works cited across our language guides.

Image & Flag Credits

All flags on this site are unofficial visual markers for language groups (see the site footer). Entries marked [source under review] could not yet be traced to a definitive origin by reverse-image research; corrections are welcome via the contact page.

Works Cited in the Guides

Generated from the citation lists and curated resource links of every guide on the site (802 sources), alphabetized. Each guide also carries its own Notes & Bibliography section with per-claim citations.

  • 'Armenia and Iran iv: Iranian influences in Armenian Language,' Encyclopaedia Iranica (based on H. Hubschmann); cf. R. Schmitt on Iranian loanwords in Armenian. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/armenia-iv
  • 'Georgia v: Linguistic Contacts with Iranian Languages,' Encyclopaedia Iranica (after M. Andronikashvili, Studies in Iranian-Georgian Linguistic Contacts). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-v
  • 'Romanians in Italy' (peste 1.070.000 de rezidenti in 2024, cea mai mare comunitate straina din Italia), cf. statisticile ISTAT. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanians_in_Italy
  • 'Romanians in Spain' (cca. 600.000 de cetateni romani in 2025, printre cele mai mari comunitati straine din Spania), cf. INE. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanians_in_Spain
  • “Ainu language,” Wikipedia — Ainu as a language isolate of Hokkaido, the Kurils and Sakhalin; phonology and writing (Latin and extended katakana); UNESCO's 2009 ‘critically endangered’ classification of Hokkaido Ainu. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_language
  • “Ancient Assyrian” is the Assyrian dialect of Akkadian, an East Semitic cuneiform language attested from c. 2500 BCE; it is distinct from the modern Assyrian people's language, which is a Neo-Aramaic (Suret) tongue. See “Akkadian.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian
  • „Bavarian language, alphabet and pronunciation“ und „Useful phrases in Bavarian“, Omniglot — Laut-/Schreibungsüberblick, Grüße (Servus, Griaß di, Griaß God, Pfiat di) und Alltagswortschatz. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/bavarian.htm
  • „Bavarian language“, Wikipedia (englisch) — Österreichisch-Bairisch als meistgesprochener oberdeutscher Dialekt (~12 Mio. Sprecher, ~125.000 km²), die Zweige Nord/Mittel/Süd, Perfekt statt Präteritum, Kasus nur am Artikel, ~45 % reine Dialektverwendung im Alltag (2008). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_language
  • „Berlinisch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Berlinisch als städtischer Misch-/Metrolekt, ick/icke, dat/wat, jut, Schrippe, Kiez sowie der Akkusativ-Dativ-Zusammenfall („Akkudativ“). https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinisch
  • “Breton (Brezhoneg),” Omniglot — Southwestern Brittonic/Insular-Celtic classification; arrival from Britain in Armorica; the Latin alphabet, the letter c'h vs ch, ñ nasalisation, the peurunvan orthography; initial mutations; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/breton.htm
  • “Breton language,” Wikipedia — history and Brittonic origin; the KLT vs Gwenedeg (Vannetais) dialects and neo-Breton; grammar (flexible/fronting word order, definite and indefinite articles, two genders, four mutations, ober-auxiliary verb pattern, conjugated prepositions); the Diwan schools and festoù-noz. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_language
  • „Burgenland Croatian“, Wikipedia (engleski) — regionalna varijanta čakavskoga narječja hrvatskoga, 19 412 govornika u Gradišću (2001.) i procjena ~70 000, doseljenje za hrvatsko-osmanskih ratova iz doline Une, vlastiti pisani standard na čakavskoj osnovi, usporedna tablica (črna, rič, Jezuš Kristuš, dolnji), skupine govora (Dolinci, Poljanci, Hati, Štoji, Vlahi, Grob), Klimpuški misal 1501., novine, Mali princ 1998., službeni status u 6 od 7 okruga od 1987., UNESCO „definitely endangered“. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgenland_Croatian
  • “Common phrases in Ainu” and the lesson series, Aynu itak — Ainu Language Grammar Guide (Silja Ijas, 2023–2026), drawing on the descriptive tradition of Tamura Suzuko — greetings, courtesy phrases, colour terms, person markers (ku-/e-/eci-/a-), lexical negation (k-eraman / k-erampewtek), and the request construction with yan / en-kore yan. https://www.aynuitak.org/vocabulary-phrases/ainu-phrases
  • "Constructed language," Wikipedia — definition and taxonomy (auxlang / artlang / engelang), history from Hildegard of Bingen's Lingua Ignota and the seventeenth-century philosophical languages through Volapük, Esperanto and the modern artistic and engineered traditions; native Esperanto speakers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language
  • “Cornish (Kernewek),” Omniglot — Southwestern Brittonic/Insular-Celtic classification; revival history; the Standard Written Form and earlier orthographies; alphabet and pronunciation; initial mutations; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/cornish.htm
  • “Counting in Northern Sami,” Of Languages and Numbers (Alexis Ulrich), with numerals sourced from the UiT Giellatekno Sámi numerals generator — cardinals 1–10, the -nuppelohkái teens, the logi-based tens, čuođi (100) and duhat (1,000). https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-northern-sami/en/sme/
  • "Darnassian (Language)," Moon Guard Wiki — representative role-play reconstruction layer, used here only as clearly labelled non-official material. https://moon-guard.fandom.com/wiki/Darnassian_(Language)
  • "Darnassian," Warcraft Wiki — the complete catalogue of officially translated Darnassian (Ishnu-alah, Ande'thoras-ethil, Elune-Adore, Tor ilisar'thera'nal, shan'do/thero'shan, the five -drassil world-tree glosses, Shaha lor'ma, Xaxas, Zin-Azshari), the internal-template confirmation, the parser explanation, untranslated lines, RPG 'Darnassian runes' note, and the root-speculation table. https://warcraft.wiki.gg/wiki/Darnassian
  • „Hamburger Platt“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Sammelbegriff für die niederdeutschen Varietäten Hamburgs, Zugehörigkeit zum Nordniedersächsischen, Geest-/Marsch-Gliederung samt Wortpaartabelle (geven/geben, maken/moken, Köök, töven/teuben, baven/boben), Finkenwerder/Vierländer/Hafenplatt, Hamburgisches Wörterbuch, heutige Verbreitung. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger_Platt
  • „Hessische Dialekte“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — rheinfränkisch-mitteldeutsche Einordnung, Gliederung (Süd-/Mittel-/Nord-/Osthessisch), Appel/Apfel-Isoglosse, ch-sch-Zusammenfall (Kirche/Kirsche, Hyperkorrektur „Kirchbaum“), Präteritumschwund südlich des Mains (ich bin kumme), Genitivumschreibung (des Buch vum Schorsch / em Schorsch soi Buch), „Äbbelwoihessisch“, Wörterbücher und SyHD-Projekt. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessische_Dialekte
  • „Holsteinisch“ (Holsteinisches Niederdeutsch), Wikipedia (deutsch) — Variante des Niederdeutschen im Landesteil Holstein, Unterdialekte (Reinfelder, Dithmarscher, Fehmarner, Ostholsteiner Platt), Thomas Manns Verwendung des Reinfelder Platts in den Buddenbrooks, Nachbardialekte und Missingsch, Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wörterbuch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holsteinisch
  • "Interlingue", Wikipedia (English), accessed 2026-07-02 — creation 1922 (Kosmoglott, Tallinn) and renaming 1949 (91 % vote; Interlingue (Occidental) permitted); Edgar de Wahl biography (Auli 1906–1921, 1943 Tallinn bombing, death 1948); ISO codes ie/ile; Cosmoglotta history (Vienna 1927, Cosmoglotta B 1935–1950); grammar (li/un, plural -s/-es, pronoun table yo/tu/il/ella/it/noi/vu/ili with object and possessive forms, vu formal, on; verb endings -ar/-er/-ir, tenses -t past, va/vell/ha/hat periphrases, ples/lass/mey moods, esser → es/esse; adverbial -men; correlative table); de Wahl's rule (1909) with the six exceptions; attested examples (Patre nor…, Il ha bon laborat, Noi serchat long, scriente un missage yo videt que, un amant cat, ti-ci libre). The article's grammar sections cite the standard Occidental grammars (pbgrammar/pbbasis references). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlingue
  • "International auxiliary language," Wikipedia — the IAL goal and design principles, the Volapük/Esperanto/Ido/Interlingua/Occidental/Novial lineage, and zonal constructed languages (Interslavic). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_language
  • “Japan opens the Upopoy Museum, the first dedicated to Ainu indigenous identity,” LifeGate — the Upopoy National Ainu Museum and Park in Shiraoi opened to visitors on 12 July 2020; ‘Upopoy’ means ‘singing together in a large group’. https://www.lifegate.com/upopoy-museum-ainu-japan
  • “Japan: New Ainu Law Becomes Effective,” Library of Congress Global Legal Monitor — the Ainu Policy Promotion Act (enacted May 2019), recognising the Ainu as an Indigenous people of Japan for the first time in law. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2019-08-05/japan-new-ainu-law-becomes-effective/
  • “Ket language,” Wikipedia, on Ket as the sole surviving Yeniseian language, the decline in native speakers from 1,225 (1926) to 537 (1989) to fewer than thirty today, and the monosyllabic native lexicon with comparisons to Na-Dene. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ket_language
  • "Khuzdûl," The One Wiki to Rule Them All (Fandom) — corpus size (~100 words), comparison with Quenya/Sindarin attestation, and film-era Neo-Khuzdul overview. Fan wiki; used for framing, cross-checked against Tolkien Gateway. https://lotr.fandom.com/wiki/Khuzd%C3%BBl
  • "Khuzdul," Tolkien Gateway — attested corpus (battle-cry, Balin's tomb, place-name glosses, Aulë/Mahal origin, iglishmêk), Semitic modelling, and secrecy of the language; entries cite Tolkien's primary texts (LotR Appendices E–F, The Silmarillion, The War of the Jewels, The Peoples of Middle-earth). https://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Khuzdul
  • "Khuzdul: mother tongue of Tolkien's dwarves," Turbolangs — secondary overview of Khuzdul structure and the Hebrew comparison in Tolkien's letters; used as a supplementary framing source. https://turbolangs.com/en-gb/khuzdul-dwarves-tolkien/
  • „Kölsch (Sprache)“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — ripuarische Einordnung, Endungstilgung (Woch, Mädche, Maat), g→j (jesaat), Verbalableitungen (klaafe → dä Klaaf), Liaison und das Zitat „Et es, wie et es“ aus dem Rheinischen/Kölschen Grundgesetz, Akademie för uns kölsche Sproch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6lsch_(Sprache)
  • “Last words: Language of China’s emperors in peril,” Gulf News (AFP), reporting UNESCO’s critically endangered classification and roughly nine remaining mother-tongue speakers in Sanjiazi village. https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/arts-culture/last-words-language-of-chinas-emperors-in-peril-1.1853999
  • “Livonian language revival,” Wikipedia, on the roughly twenty fluent (B1+) speakers and approximately 210 people who identify as Livonian and use it at an A1–A2 level. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian_language_revival
  • “Livonian language,” Wikipedia, on Livonian as a Finnic language, the death of last native speaker Grizelda Kristiņa on 2 June 2013, its UNESCO critically endangered status, and the reported new native speaker Kuldi Medne (b. 2020). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian_language
  • “Manchu, Once China’s Official Language, Could Lose Its Voice,” Sixth Tone, on the collapse from roughly one million speakers at the end of the Qing to fewer than a hundred fluent speakers today, concentrated in Heilongjiang villages such as Sanjiazi. https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1000272/manchu,-once-chinas-official-language,-could-lose-its-voice
  • “Mayan” is a family of about thirty languages; the Classic-period (c. 250–900 CE) hieroglyphic inscriptions record mainly a prestige language of the Ch'olan branch (Classic Ch'olti'an). Mayan languages are spoken by roughly six million people today. See “Mayan languages.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_languages
  • „Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Einordnung ins Ostniederdeutsche; definierendes Merkmal: Hebung/„Erhöhung“ von mnd. ê/ô vor r (ierst, hüren, Uhr ‚Ohr‘); Diphthongierung hei/tau mit Beispielreihe to/töven/Aven/grön → tau/täuben/Aben/gräun; dat gegenüber märkisch det; Teildialekte Schwerinerisch, Vorpommersch, Strelitzisch; „breite“ Aussprache; Fritz Reuters an der Standardorthographie orientierte Schreibung; Richard Wossidlos Mecklenburgisches Wörterbuch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
  • „Moravian dialects“, Wikipedia (anglicky) — klasifikace čtyř skupin, příkladová věta „Dej mouku ze mlýna na vozík“ ve třech nářečních podobách, hanácké/východomoravské/lašské hláskové rysy, archaismy (naša, ovca, chcu, dušu, ju, deň), koncovky -ijó/-ijú, sčítání 2011 (108 469 mluvčích), hantec a šalina. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_dialects
  • „Nordniedersächsisch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Dialektgruppe des Niedersächsischen (Plattdeutsch), Eigenname Noordneddersassisch, Sprachgebiet (Großteil Niedersachsens, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein), Rolle als medienpräsentes „Standard-Niedersächsisch“ mit geringer Binnenvariation, Verweis auf Niedersächsisches und Hamburgisches Wörterbuch. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordnieders%C3%A4chsisch
  • “Northern Sámi language and alphabet,” Omniglot — classification within the Sámi/Uralic family; ~25,000 speakers across Norway, Sweden and Finland; orthographic history (Rask 1832; unified 1979, revised 1985); special letters and pronunciation; official status (Finnmark/Troms and municipalities incl. Kautokeino and Karasjok, ~90% speakers); education and the newspaper Ávvir. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/northernsami.htm
  • “Numbers in Ainu,” Omniglot — the Ainu cardinal numerals one to ten and the traditional vigesimal (base-20) counting system. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/ainu.htm
  • “Numbers in Breton,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (unan, daou/div, tri/teir, pevar/peder, pemp, c'hwec'h, seizh, eizh, nav, dek; ugent 20; kant 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/breton.htm
  • “Numbers in Cornish,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (onan, dew, tri, peswar, pymp, hwegh, seyth, eth, naw, deg; ugens 20; kans 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/cornish.htm
  • “Numbers in Scottish Gaelic,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (aon, dhà, trì, ceithir, còig, sia, seachd, ochd, naoi, deich; fichead 20; ceud 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/gaelic.htm
  • “Numbers in Welsh,” Omniglot — cardinal numerals (un, dau/dwy, tri, pedwar, pump, chwech, saith, wyth, naw, deg; ugain 20; cant 100). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/welsh.htm
  • „Obersächsische Dialekte“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — ostmitteldeutsche Einordnung (thüringisch-obersächsische Gruppe), Meißnisch/Osterländisch, Entrundung (bäse, Biehne), Konsonantenschwächung (Kardoffeln, Babba), Monophthongierung (Been, Boom), Hebung (Schnii), Dialekt-vs.-Regiolekt-Befund (Siebenhaar) und Wörterbuch der obersächsischen Mundarten. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obers%C3%A4chsische_Dialekte
  • „Pennsylvania Dutch language“, Wikipedia (englisch) — Pfälzische Herkunft (bes. ländliche Dialekte um Mannheim/Ludwigshafen); Deitsch/Pennsilfaanisch; ≈300.000 Muttersprachler; zwei Rechtschreibschulen (englischbasiert vs. Buffington–Barba) mit Vaterunser-Vergleichstext; drei Genera, Zwei-Kasus-Substantive + Drei-Kasus-Pronomen, Genitiversatz em Mann sei Hund, Dativabbau (Kalona: unter 40 nie); englischstämmige Verben als schwache Verben; Beispielsätze „Ich bet, du kannscht Deitsch schwetze“, „Es dependt en wennig, waer du bischt“; Hiwwe wie Driwwe (1997, ~100 Autoren), Edition Tintenfaß (2006), Wycliffe-NT, Miller-Wörterbuch (2013)/-Grammatik (2014); ISO 639-3 pdc; laut UNESCO nicht gefährdet. Ergänzt (Lauf 118, erneut abgerufen 2026-07-03): Sprecherzahlen 237.000 (ACS 2016–2020) bis 350.000 (2012) + ≈3.000 L2; Weitergabe bei praktisch allen Old-Order-Amischen und Horse-and-Buggy-Altmennoniten (Amisch-Population ≈227.000, 2008); Ausnahmen Virginia-Altmennoniten (englisch) und Berndeutsch/Elsässisch-Gemeinden in Indiana; Kutztown-University-Minor (zwei Semester Dialekt), Radioprogramm, jährliche lutherische/reformierte Gottesdienste auf Deitsch; Hiwwe wie Driwwe seit 2002 gedruckt und online. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language
  • “Researchers from the University of Warsaw will help to preserve the Wymysorys language,” Science in Poland, on the revival led by Tymoteusz Król and the University of Warsaw “Artes Liberales” programme, including children’s classes. https://scienceinpoland.pl/en/news/news,408701,researchers-from-the-university-of-warsaw-will-help-to-preserve-the-wymysorys-language.html
  • „Resian dialect“, Wikipedia (angleško) — rezijanščina kot slovensko narečje (primorska skupina, koroška osnova), 929 prebivalcev občine Rezija (2022), UNESCO „definitely endangered“, zadihani centralizirani samoglasniki, izguba tonemov in kolikosti, Steenwijkov pravopis 1994 (ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, w) s preglednico primerov (čäs, pïsat, kjüč, klubük, patök, žanä, zalën, šëjst, byt, vys), določni/nedoločni člen, klitična podvojitev (Ja si ti rëkal tabë), štiri standardne oblike (Bila, Njïva, Osoanë, Solbica), peticija 2004 (78,9 %), katekizma iz 18. stoletja, prva knjiga 1923–33, Te Mali Prïncip (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resian_dialect
  • "Rihannsu (language)," Star Trek Expanded Universe wiki — grammar of the fan tradition: SVO/VOS word order with object-fronted imperatives and the four noun declensions. https://stexpanded.fandom.com/wiki/Rihannsu_(language)
  • "Romulan alphabet and the Rihannsu language," Omniglot — the fan-standardized Romulan script, its sound values, and romanization conventions. https://www.omniglot.com/conscripts/romulan.htm
  • "Romulan Dictionary," StarBase 118 wiki — fan-standard vocabulary in the Duane tradition (Aefvadh, Hann'yyo, rank terms khre'Riov/Riov/erei'Riov, everyday phrases). https://wiki.starbase118.net/wiki/Romulan_Dictionary
  • "Romulan language," Memory Alpha — screen-canon Romulan: jolan tru (TNG 'Unification'), Tal Shiar, Qowat Milat and zhal makh (Star Trek: Picard), and the production history of on-screen Romulan lettering. https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Romulan_language
  • "Romulan language," Memory Beta — Diane Duane's Rihannsu: the Old High Vulcan 'aging' origin, Rihan/Rihannsu ('the Declared'), ch'Rihan/ch'Havran, mnhei'sahe, and the unpublished Romulan dictionary pitch. https://memory-beta.fandom.com/wiki/Romulan_language
  • “Rosetta Spotlight: Yurok — a critically endangered language,” The Rosetta Project, on Yurok’s endangerment and documentation. https://rosettaproject.org/blog/02010/jul/20/rosetta-spotlight-yurok/
  • “Sámi languages,” Wikipedia, and Ságastallamin (UiT, The Arctic University of Norway), “The Sámi languages” — Northern Sámi as roughly 90% of Sámi speakers; UNESCO endangerment classifications across the Sámi family (Northern Sámi ‘definitely endangered’; smaller varieties more severe); all Sámi languages listed in the UNESCO Atlas. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_languages
  • „Schwäbische Dialekte“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Klassifikation als alemannische Dialektgruppe, sch-Laut vor d/t und b/p (Angschd, Raschbl), Konsonantenschwächung (Dag, Schdual), fehlendes Schwa, Diminutiv -le mit Plural -la (Mädle/Mädla), 2. Ps. Sg. auf -sch(t), „mir“ für „wir“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%A4bische_Dialekte
  • “Scottish Gaelic,” Omniglot — Goidelic/Insular-Celtic classification; the 18-letter alphabet and grave accent; broad/slender consonants; lenition and the digraphs bh, mh, dh, gh, ch, th; VSO word order; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/gaelic.htm
  • "Tagalog language," Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tagalog-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tagalog-language
  • „Texas German“, Radiosendung in der NDR-Reihe Zwischen Hamburg und Haiti von Guido Meyer, 18. Dezember 2022 (26 Minuten) — deutschsprachige Radiodokumentation über den Dialekt; verlinkt im deutschen Wikipedia-Artikel „Texasdeutsch“ (abgerufen 2026-07-03). https://www.ndr.de/nachrichten/info/epg/Zwischen-Hamburg-und-Haiti-Texas-German,sendung1308996.html
  • „Texas German“, Wikipedia (englisch) — Dialektgruppe der Nachkommen der Siedler Mitte des 19. Jh.; Siedlungsgürtel Houston–Hill Country (New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, Boerne, Comfort …); Gleichstellung des Deutschen mit dem Spanischen 1846 bis zum 1. Weltkrieg; Sprecherzahlen ~90.000 (1907), ~160.000 (1940), ~70.000 (1960er), ≈5.000 heute (meist 70+), erwartetes Erlöschen um 2035; ab 1893 englischsprachiger Schulzwang, antideutsche Stimmung beider Weltkriege; ≈5–6 % englisches Lehngut, Prägungen wie Luftschiff „Flugzeug“; Forschung: Glenn Gilbert (1960er), Hans C. Boas / Texas German Dialect Project (UT Austin), The Life and Death of Texas German (2009). Ergänzt (Lauf 118, erneut abgerufen 2026-07-03): vollständiger Gründungsgürtel (Bulverde, Pflugerville, Walburg, Muenster, Schulenburg, Brenham, Industry, New Ulm, Weimar); Zensus-2000-Ortszahlen (Fredericksburg 1.035 = 12,48 %, New Braunfels 840, Schulenburg 150, Stonewall 85, Boerne 70, Harper 65, Comfort 45; Gillespie County 2.270 = 11,51 %; 82.100 Deutschsprecher in Texas gesamt); Anpassung an US-Maß- und Rechtsterminologie, Neuprägung/Entlehnung/Dialektausgleich; Boas-Zitat („odd mixture of English and 19th-century German“); Dokumentarfilm All Güt Things (2016) und Podcast Yellow of the Egg (2022). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_German
  • „Texasdeutsch“, Wikipedia (deutsch) — Auswanderung über den Mainzer Adelsverein unter Prinz Carl zu Solms-Braunfels (Gründung Fredericksburgs 1846); Sprachinsel im Hill Country durch Englisch-Verweigerung der Siedler, Ende der Isolation mit dem Umzug der Gillespie County Fair nach Fredericksburg 1889; ab 1900 Englischlehrer, im Ersten Weltkrieg Verbot des Deutschunterrichts; Grammatik: kein Genitiv, Zusammenfall von Dativ und Akkusativ, zunehmend deutsch-englische Mischsprache je nach sozialer Kontaktsituation; Abgrenzung vom Texas-Elsässischen (Medina County; Roesch 2012); Literatur: Boas 2009, Gilbert 1964, Nicolini 2004. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texasdeutsch
  • "Thalassian (Language)," Moon Guard Wiki — representative fan/role-play reconstruction layer (extended lexicon and grammar conventions), used here only as clearly labelled non-official material. https://moon-guard.fandom.com/wiki/Thalassian_(Language)
  • "Thalassian," Warcraft Wiki / Wowpedia — the complete catalogue of officially translated Thalassian phrases and words (Bal'a dash malanore, Shorel'aran, Anar'alah belore, Anu belore dela'na, sin'dorei/quel'dorei/ren'dorei glosses, Quel'Thalas 'High Home', rea 'and', the in-game parser explanation), each cited to its game, novel or developer source. https://warcraft.wiki.gg/wiki/Thalassian
  • “The saga of the Ainu language,” The UNESCO Courier, and the Endangered Languages Project entry for Ainu — on the very small number of remaining fluent/native speakers and the collapse of family transmission; the 2006 Hokkaido survey (304 of 23,782 reporting knowledge of Ainu). https://courier.unesco.org/en/articles/saga-ainu-language
  • "The Warcraft Encyclopedia: Darnassian," via Wowpedia — Blizzard's official encyclopedia text on the language, its daughter languages (Nazja, Thalassian) and the offense taken at cross-language comparison. https://wowpedia.fandom.com/wiki/Darnassian
  • "The Warcraft Encyclopedia/Thalassian," Wowpedia — Blizzard's official encyclopedia text: Thalassian's descent from Darnassian and the social risk of mixing the two languages. https://wowpedia.fandom.com/wiki/The_Warcraft_Encyclopedia/Thalassian
  • “Tlingit language,” Wikipedia, on its Na-Dene classification, James Crippen’s 2019 estimate of 100–200 native speakers (youngest over sixty), the large consonant inventory with ejectives and uvulars, tone, and the polysynthetic, templatic verb. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_language
  • „Torlakian dialects“, Wikipedia (engleski) — prelazni južnoslovenski govori; srpska klasifikacija (prizrensko-timočki, Ivić) naspram bugarske (zapadnobugarski prelazni) i makedonske; UNESCO „ranjiv“; balkanizmi (gubitak padeža i infinitiva, po- komparativ, postpozitivni član, gubitak tonova i dužina, ə za poluglase, očuvano finalno -l); tabela vlk/slza/žlt po govorima; Krašovani, Goranci, Janjevci; Vukova definicija Torlaka; rukopis iz Temske 1762; etimologija imena. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torlakian_dialects
  • "Turkmen language," Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkmen-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkmen-language
  • "Utopian for Beginners" — The New Yorker (Joshua Foer, 2012). The landmark article that brought Ithkuil to wide public attention. Excellent cultural and biographical background. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/24/utopian-for-beginners
  • “Welsh language, alphabet and pronunciation,” Omniglot — Brittonic/Insular-Celtic classification; the 29-letter alphabet and digraphs (ch, dd, ff, ng, ll, ph, rh, th); pronunciation of ll, dd, ch, rh; VSO word order; initial mutations; greetings and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/welsh.htm
  • “Welsh language,” Wikipedia — history, Brittonic family relationships, grammar (VSO, gender, mutations, periphrastic verbs with bod), dialect divide, literature, and official status in Wales; worldwide speaker estimate incl. Y Wladfa (Patagonia). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language
  • “Wymysorys language,” Wikipedia, on its derivation from twelfth-century Middle High German with heavy Polish influence, its standing as possibly the most endangered Germanic language with fewer than twenty mostly elderly native speakers, and the post-1945 prohibition that broke transmission. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wymysorys_language
  • “Yeniseian languages,” Wikipedia, on the family, Edward Vajda’s Dene-Yeniseian hypothesis linking Yeniseian to the Na-Dene languages of North America, and the position-class complexity of the Ket verb (cf. Stefan Georg, A Descriptive Grammar of Ket, 2007). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeniseian_languages
  • “Yuchi language,” Wikipedia — Yuchi/Euchee (endonym Tsohaya) as a language isolate of Oklahoma; removal history; speaker decline and the death of last fluent first-language elder Maxine Wildcat Barnett on 27 August 2021; ~12 second-language speakers (2016); the Crawford–George orthography (1970s). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuchi_language
  • “Yurok language,” Wikipedia, on its Algic classification (with Wiyot, the western outliers of the family), its severely endangered status with only a handful of elderly first-language speakers, and its numeral-classifier counting system. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurok_language
  • « A Cajun French–English Glossary », Louisiana State University, Department of French Studies (lsu.edu, consulté le 2026-06-27 lors de la vérification initiale, revalidé le 2026-07-02) — salutations et formules (Comment ça va, cher ? ; Comment les affaires ? ; Quoi c'est ton nom ?). Confiance : élevée (recoupé avec [3]). https://www.lsu.edu/hss/french/undergraduate_program/cajun_french/cajun_french_english_glossary.php
  • « Champenois language », Wikipédia (anglais) — lou champaignat, aire (Champagne, Île-de-France/Seine-et-Marne, Vresse-sur-Semois en Belgique), langue régionale de France et statut reconnu en Wallonie, UNESCO (langue en danger), traits champenois chez Chrétien de Troyes et Rashi, première littérature fin XVIe s., Le Bontemps de Carnaval de Chaumont (rééd. 1660), noëls du XVIIIe siècle, bibliographie (Tarbé 1851, Paroles d'Oïl). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champenois_language
  • « Gallo language », Wikipédia (anglais) — aire du gallo en Haute-Bretagne et frontière Plouha–Pénerf, statut discuté (langue d'oïl / « patois », IETF fr-gallo, pas de code ISO), reconnaissance « langue de Bretagne » (2004), UNESCO « severely endangered », estimations de locuteurs (29 060 en 1999 à ~200 000, 132 000 en 2024), étymologie bretonne de « gallo » et terme « britto-roman » (Raude), anet/anui, infinitif en [ə], ouézè/gaziao, bllë, démonstratifs régionaux, pronoms je/il face au poitevin i/le. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo_language
  • « Gascon dialect », Wikipèdia (anglés) — lo gascon coma varietat de l'occitan e lo debat sus son estatut, retirament del còdi ISO [gsc] dins [oci], substrat basc (hèsta, huec, hemna; vocala protetica; sistèma enonciatiu que/e/be/ja), taula « Qu'i va / Que i va / I va », tres ensembles dialectals, aranés cooficial (estatut de 2006), UNESCO « definitely endangered », ~250 000 locutors (ELP 2011), enquèsta de Bearn 1982. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gascon_dialect
  • « Joual », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-02 — contractions attestées (tsé, faque, chus, d'la, su'l, s'a, y, a, ouin, drette là, Grouille-toé, pantoute, icitte, astheure, frette, moé, toé), particule interrogative « -tu » < « t-il » du XIIIᵉ siècle (sourcé sur le CCDMD/Correspondance et L'actualité), moé/toé comme prononciations de l'Ancien Régime (Picard 1974, Wittmann 1997), origines non anglaises de pogner et pitoune (occitan pichona), anglicismes d'usine (bécosse, chequer, domper, toffer), Michel Tremblay et Les Belles-sœurs (1968, Théâtre du Rideau Vert ; accueil parisien de 1973). Confiance : élevée sur les points doublement sourcés, moyenne sinon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joual
  • « Louisiana French », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-02 — histoire et statut (CODOFIL, ~150 000–200 000 locuteurs), phonologie (r apical, affrication en Évangéline, réduction des groupes, /ʒ/→[h] à Terrebonne/Lafourche), paradigme de « manger » (vous-autres mange, ils mangeont, être après/apé + inf.), non-contraction de le/de les, tableau lexical (char, chaoui, chevrette, soulier, piastre, galette, bougre, rat de bois, du train, drette-là, àyoù, quoi faire, guetter), emprunts amérindiens (bayou, pacane, plaquemine, choupique, latanier, patassa), toponymes (en ville, les Natchitoches), médias contemporains (Télé-Louisiane, LaCréole, Le Bourdon de la Louisiane, Kirby Jambon, Ashlee Michot). L'article s'appuie notamment sur Valdman 2010, Klingler et Blyth 1997. Confiance : élevée pour les items recoupés avec [3]/[4], moyenne pour les items attestés dans ce seul article. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_French
  • « Provençal dialect », Wikipèdia (anglés) — lo provençau coma varietat de l'occitan, retirament del còdi ISO [prv] dins [oci] en 2007, sosdialèctes (rodanenc, maritim, niçard, gavòt), taula de comparason de las nòrmas mistralenca e classica, Mistral / Felibritge / Lafont e l'istòria del tèrme. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect
  • « Quebec French lexicon », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-02 — canadianismes de bon aloi et rôle de l'OQLF (sourcé sur Oakes & Warren 2007, Language, Citizenship and Identity in Quebec, Palgrave Macmillan), archaïsmes (barrer, espérer, breuvage, piastre, couple féminin), tableau lexical (banc de neige, débarbouillette, dépanneur, fin de semaine, magasiner, souffleuse, traversier, tuque, bleuets, poudrerie), anglicismes intégrés (chum, checker, domper, toffer, toune) et purismes (courriel, stationnement), possessif en « à », litotes (pas pire, pas laid), idiotismes (J'ai mon voyage, C'est de valeur, Il fait frette, Tirer le diable par la queue, Se faire passer un sapin, Avoir l'estomac dans les talons, Chanter la pomme, Habillé comme la chienne à Jacques), repas (déjeuner/dîner/souper), bienvenue et bonne journée. Confiance : élevée pour les items recoupés avec [3]/[4], moyenne pour les items attestés dans ce seul article. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_French_lexicon
  • « Quebec French profanity », Wikipédia (anglais), consulté le 2026-07-03 — liste des sacres (tabarnak, câlice, crisse, ostie/esti, maudit, ciboire, sacrament, viarge) et de leurs euphémismes (tabarnouche/tabarouette, câline, crime/cristie, maudine/mautadit, 'sti/titi, cibolle), dérivés grammaticaux (crisser/sacrer son camp, décâlisser, en tabarnak, j'm'en câlice, sacrament adverbial, crisser une volée), douceur relative de « fucké » ; l'article s'appuie notamment sur Nosowitz 2016 (Atlas Obscura) et Pichette 1980 (Le guide raisonné des jurons). Confiance : élevée pour les formes principales, moyenne pour les variantes rares. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_French_profanity
  • «Dutch language», Wikipedia (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — grammaticale gelijkenis Nederlands–Duits (zinsbouw en werkwoordsmorfologie), naamvalsverlies (beperkt tot voornaamwoorden en vaste uitdrukkingen; de datief over de accusatief veralgemeend: NL me/je tegenover DE mich/mir, dich/dir), de/het en de samenval van mannelijk/vrouwelijk tot een gemeenschappelijk geslacht, werkwoordklassen (±60% zwak; zeven sterke klassen met o.a. breken/brak/gebroken, geven/gaf/gegeven, dragen/droeg/gedragen), en de Hoogduitse klankverschuiving als scheidslijn tussen het Hoogduits en de Nederfrankische dialecten. Confidence: hoog. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language
  • «False friends in German and Dutch language», Taalhuis Amsterdam (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — wie (NL 'wie' / DE 'hoe'), varen tegenover fahren ('rijden'), tuin tegenover Zaun ('hek'), tafel tegenover Tafel ('schoolbord'). Confidence: hoog (onafhankelijke tweede bron naast [3]). https://taalhuisamsterdam.nl/false-friends-dutch-german-speaker-language-traps/
  • «False friends: Dutch and German», Learndutch.org (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — de omkering zee/meer ↔ Meer/See en bellen (NL 'opbellen') tegenover Duits bellen ('blaffen'). Confidence: hoog (bevestigd door [4]). https://www.learndutch.org/beginners/false-friends-dutch-and-german/
  • «German language», Wikipedia (geraadpleegd 2026-07-03) — verbuigingstabel van het bepaald lidwoord (der/die/das over vier naamvallen; 16 combinaties, 6 vormen), drie geslachten en achtervoegselsignalen (-ung/-schaft/-keit/-heit vrouwelijk, -chen/-lein onzijdig, -ismus mannelijk), naamwoordverbuiging (zeven uitgangen; genitief/datief beperkt; datief meervoud verbuigt), werkwoordsysteem (zwak/sterk/gemengd; presens en preteritum enkelvoudig, vier samengestelde tijden; indicatief/imperatief/conjunctief; conjunctief als drager van de indirecte rede en, met preteritum, van de conditionalis; toestands- vs handelingspassief met sein/werden), samenstellingen (Hundehütte, Baumhaus, Rindfleischetikettierungs…gesetz en de stilistische waardering ervan), hoofdletters op zelfstandige naamwoorden (met de historische parallel Deens tot 1948 / Engels 18e eeuw; gedeeld met Luxemburgs en Noord-Fries), ß→SS (Maßband/MASSBAND; KREßLEIN), lange s in Fraktur (Wachſtube/Wachstube), en de aanhalingstekens „…“ (voorbeeld „Guten Morgen!“). Confidence: hoog. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language
  • «Japanese language», Wikipedia (diakses 2026-07-03) — urutan kata SOV dengan satu aturan kaku (verba di akhir) dan partikel/posposisi penanda fungsi (wa topik; ga subjek: Kare ga yatta; o objek: Nani o tabemasu ka; ni datif/arah: Tanaka-san ni agete kudasai, Nihon ni ikitai; e arah: pātī e ikanai ka; no genitif: watashi no kamera; wa menimpa ga/o: Watashi wa sushi ga ii desu), struktur topik–komentar dan sifat menonjolkan-topik (Tanaka-san wa…), kopula da→desu sebagai kesopanan, pelesapan subjek/objek (Yatta!), kata benda tanpa jumlah/gender/kata sandang (hon, hito, ki) dengan kata penggolong, reduplikasi hitobito 人々 dan sufiks kolektif -tachi ('dan rombongan'), kata ganti (watashi/boku/ore; anata vs gelar sensei; asal-usul nominal boku 'pelayan', kimi 'tuan'; Odoroita kare wa…), konjugasi dua tempus + -te iru (tabete iru vs kite iru), negasi taberu→tabenai→tabenakatta, kalimat tanya dengan -ka/-no/intonasi (ii desu ka; O-namae wa?), keigo (teineigo/sonkeigo/kenjōgo; iku→ikimasu/irassharu/ukagau/mairu; uchi–soto; oshiete moratta/ageta), fonotaktik (C)(G)V(C) dengan moraik ん yang berasimilasi, aksen titinada (hashi 'sumpit'/'jembatan'; bukan bahasa nada), serta tiga aksara (kanji + hiragana/katakana; sejarah hiragana abad ke-9–10; jōyō kanji sebagai kompromi pascaperang; kanji diajarkan sejak SD kelas 1). Confidence: tinggi. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language
  • «Useful Japanese phrases», Omniglot (diakses 2026-07-03) — tabel salam (ohayō gozaimasu, konnichiwa, konbanwa, oyasumi nasai, sayōnara, arigatō (gozaimasu), sumimasen, gomen nasai, hajimemashite, o-genki desu ka), moshi moshi dengan catatan etimologisnya (bentuk merendah 'berkata', zaman Edo), dan pasangan itadakimasu / gochisōsama deshita. Confidence: tinggi untuk bentuk; catatan budaya dikonfirmasi satu sumber (ditandai). https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/japanese.php
  • @cijapanese. Canal de inmersión comprensible en japonés puro: desde el nivel más básico hasta el avanzado, sin traducción, con apoyo visual y de escritura. Método similar al Dreaming Spanish, muy eficaz para desarrollar la comprensión auditiva. @cijapanese https://www.youtube.com/@cijapanese
  • @EasyGerman. Interviste per strada con sottotitoli in tedesco e inglese. Tedesco reale e colloquiale, ideale dal livello A2 in poi. @EasyGerman https://www.youtube.com/@EasyGerman
  • @FrancaisAuthentique. Canal de Johan Tekfak con francés natural, anécdotas cotidianas y explicaciones sobre el uso real del idioma. Ideal a partir del A2–B1. @FrancaisAuthentique https://www.youtube.com/@FrancaisAuthentique
  • @GermanwithJenny. Lezioni strutturate di grammatica e vocabolario in inglese, chiare e ben organizzate. Utile per approfondire regole specifiche come i casi o il Konjunktiv II. @GermanwithJenny https://www.youtube.com/@GermanwithJenny
  • @innerFrench. Hugo Cotton parla di temi culturali e di attualità in francese naturale ma accessibile. Ideale dal livello B1 in su. @innerFrench https://www.youtube.com/@innerFrench
  • 3Cat (TV3 / Catalunya Radio). Radio e TV pubblica catalana in streaming: notizie, serie, podcast. https://www.3cat.cat/
  • A Grammar of Paraguayan Guarani (UCL Press, acesso aberto). Gramática acadêmica completa e gratuita (Estigarribia, 2020). https://www.uclpress.co.uk/products/119274
  • A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language (New Ithkuil, 2023). The definitive grammar of the current version, covering all morphological categories in detail. https://ithkuil.net/newithkuil.htm
  • A magyar nyelv nemet jovevenyszavairol (kb. 400 szo, foleg a Habsburg-kortol), vo. a magyar nyelvtorteneti szakirodalom; 'Germanism (linguistics)'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanism_(linguistics)
  • A Manchu Grammar (von Möllendorff, 1892) — full text. the classic romanized grammar, free https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Manchu_Grammar
  • Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua. Cusco-based language academy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia_Mayor_de_la_Lengua_Quechua
  • Academia Romana - DOOM. L'autorita normativa: il dizionario ortografico ufficiale (DOOM). https://academiaromana.ro/
  • Académie des Langues Kanak — Drehu. the community language authority (lead source for review) https://www.alk.nc/langues/drehu
  • Académie des Langues Kanak — Nengone. the community language authority (lead source for review) https://www.alk.nc/langues/nengone
  • Académie des Langues Kanak — Paicî. the community language authority (lead source for review) https://www.alk.nc/langues/paici
  • Accademia della Crusca. Autoritatea lingvistica a limbii italiene; raspunsuri la dubii de limba. https://accademiadellacrusca.it/
  • Aisa / Ikasbil (HABE). curso introdutório gratuito e exercícios do organismo linguístico basco HABE https://www.ikasten.ikasbil.eus/
  • Akademi Kernewek / Cornish Language Office. official body & Standard Written Form https://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish-language
  • Al Jazeera Learning Arabic. Sumber belajar bahasa Arab baku dari media Arab terkemuka. https://learning.aljazeera.net/
  • Al Jazeera. Authentic MSA input; pick a dialect channel for spoken practice. https://www.aljazeera.net/
  • Alexander Andrason and Tymoteusz Król, A Grammar of Wymysorys (Durham, NC: Slavic and Eurasian Language Resource Center, Duke University, 2016), the open-access reference grammar of the language. https://slaviccenters.duke.edu/sites/slaviccenters.duke.edu/files/media_items_files/wymysorys-grammar.original.pdf
  • alliance-francaise.jp. 世界130か国以上に展開する非営利フランス語教育機関。日本各地に教室があり、DELF/DALF 認定試験も受験できます。alliance-francaise.jp 全レベル https://www.alliance-francaise.jp/
  • alliancefrancaise.de. deutschsprachige Städte — Lokale Sprachzentren in zahlreichen deutschen, österreichischen und Schweizer Städten. Kurse, Konversationsrunden und offizielle DELF/DALF-Zertifizierungen (A1–C2). alliancefrancaise.de https://www.alliancefrancaise.de/
  • alliancefrancaise.fr. La red global de institutos de francés del gobierno francés. Tiene sedes en más de 130 países, incluidas decenas de ciudades de España y América Latina. Ofrece cursos presenciales y en línea, y las certificaciones oficiales DELF/DALF (A1–C2). alliancefrancaise.fr https://www.fondation-alliancefr.org/
  • alliancefrancaise.it. Centri in tutta Italia (Roma, Milano, Firenze, Bologna, Palermo e molte altre città) con corsi per tutti i livelli e certificazioni ufficiali. alliancefrancaise.it https://www.alliancefrancaise.it/
  • alliancefrancaise.pt. Centros em Lisboa, Porto e outras cidades com cursos para todos os níveis e certificações oficiais. alliancefrancaise.pt https://www.alliancefrancaise.pt/
  • Almaany (kamus daring). Kamus Arab dwibahasa yang lengkap. https://www.almaany.com/
  • Amharic overview. Background on the script, sounds and grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amharic
  • Ancient Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language attested c. 3000 BCE onward through stages Old/Middle/Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic; its consonantal scripts (hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic) did not write vowels. See “Egyptian language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_language
  • Ancient Greek in Action (Leonard Muellner). video lecture series https://kosmossociety.chs.harvard.edu/introduction-to-greek/
  • Ancient Greek is the Hellenic Indo-European language of ancient Greece (Homeric, Classical/Attic, Koine and later stages), the medium of Greek literature, philosophy and the Greek New Testament, and the direct ancestor of Modern Greek. See “Ancient Greek.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek
  • Andras J. E. Bodrogligeti, An Academic Reference Grammar of Modern Literary Uzbek (Munich: LINCOM Europa, 2003), Introduction & Phonology. https://www.worldcat.org/title/academic-reference-grammar-of-modern-literary-uzbek/oclc/56124117
  • Andras Rona-Tas & Arpad Berta, West Old Turkic: Turkic Loanwords in Hungarian, 2 vols. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011) [Turcologica 84] - kb. 400-500 otorok jovevenyszo a magyarban. https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/
  • Andree Hartanto and Sujin Yang, "Disparate Bilingual Experiences Modulate Task-Switching Advantages: A Diffusion-Model Analysis of the Effects of Interactional Context on Switch Costs," Cognition 150 (2016): 10–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.01.016
  • Andreu Bosch i Rodoreda, 'L'algueres', in Manuel Alvar (dir.), Manual de dialectologia hispanica (Barcelona: Ariel, 1996); cfr. Institut d'Estudis Catalans, materiali sull'Alguer. https://www.iec.cat/
  • Andrew Garrett et al., the Yurok Language Project, University of California, Berkeley — an online dictionary with several thousand audio files, more than a hundred texts, and pedagogical tools, begun in 2001 by Garrett and Juliette Blevins. See also Garrett, “An Online Dictionary with Texts and Pedagogical Tools: The Yurok Language Project at Berkeley,” International Journal of Lexicography 24, no. 4 (2011): 405–419. https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~yurok/
  • Angela de Bruin and Ronan McGarrigle, "Dual-Tasking While Using Two Languages: Examining the Cognitive Resource Demands of Cued and Voluntary Language Production in Bilinguals," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 77, no. 3 (2024): 487–506, https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218231173638. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218231173638
  • Angela de Bruin, Liv J. Hoversten, and Clara D. Martin, "Interference between Non-Native Languages during Trilingual Language Production," Journal of Memory and Language 128 (2023): 104386, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2022.104386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2022.104386
  • Anki. ($25, one-time purchase; iOS/Android/Windows/macOS) is the most effective memorization tool available, using the SM2 or FSRS algorithm. It is highly customizable & applicable to any subject requiring memorization. Before building decks, review the AnKing YouTube channel for guidance on note types, card styling, & settings. https://apps.ankiweb.net/
  • Anki. 스페이스드 리피티션(간격 반복) 방식의 플래시카드 앱. 격 변화표·명사 성·불규칙 동사를 외우는 데 최적입니다. 공유 덱을 무료로 다운로드할 수 있습니다. https://ankiweb.net/
  • Anne Therese Frederiksen and Judith F. Kroll, "Regulation and Control: What Bimodal Bilingualism Reveals about Learning and Juggling Two Languages," Languages 7, no. 3 (2022): 214, https://www.mdpi.com/2226-471X/7/3/214. https://www.mdpi.com/2226-471X/7/3/214
  • Aperçu de l'isiXhosa. Contexte sur les clics, les classes et l'orthographe. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_(langue)
  • Aperçu de l'isiZulu. Orientation sur les clics, les classes et l'orthographe. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoulou_(langue)
  • Aperçu du yorùbá. Présentation du ton, des voyelles et de la grammaire. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_(langue)
  • ARD / ZDF (radio es televizio). Nemet kozszolgalati media: valodi nyelv hallgatashoz. https://www.ardmediathek.de/
  • Ardalambion — Helge Fauskanger's Quenya course. Long-running site with a full Quenya grammar course, one of the most thorough available in English. https://folk.uib.no/hnohf/
  • Ardalambion — Helge Fauskanger's Sindarin overview. Helge Fauskanger's grammar and overview of Sindarin; rigorous and well-sourced. https://folk.uib.no/hnohf/sindarin.htm
  • Armenian language portals. Nayiri hosts classic Armenian dictionaries online; indispensable for lookups. https://www.armenian.dpu.am/
  • Armeniapedia — کتاب گفت‌وگوی ارمنی. عبارات و گفت‌وگوهای پایه برای آغازگران. https://www.armeniapedia.org/wiki/An_Armenian-English_Conversation_Book
  • arte.tv. Canale culturale franco-tedesco con molti programmi disponibili in francese con sottotitoli. Ottimo per l'italiano che vuole cultura e lingua insieme. arte.tv https://www.arte.tv/
  • arte.tv/de. Der deutsch-französische Kultursender bietet viele Sendungen mit deutschen und französischen Untertiteln. Ideal für den gleichzeitigen Vergleich beider Sprachen. arte.tv/de https://www.arte.tv/de/
  • Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, Ronda F. Lo, and Raymond A. Mar, "Multilingualism and Mentalizing Abilities in Adults," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26, no. 2 (2023): 456–467, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/multilingualism-and-mentalizing-abilities-in-adults/85A28F8CC53DC0C838823A73488AE55E. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/multilingualism-and-mentalizing-abilities-in-adults/85A28F8CC53DC0C838823A73488AE55E
  • Assimil — L'Espagnol. L'Espagnol débutant — La méthode française par excellence, idéale pour démarrer en autonomie depuis le français. https://www.assimil.com/
  • Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek. reading-based course; grammar in context; widely used https://global.oup.com/academic/content/series/a/athenaze/
  • Audio Hijack. (macOS, Apple Silicon) — records system/Skype audio; useful for capturing tutor sessions. https://rogueamoeba.com/audiohijack/
  • Avañe'ẽ / Ateneo de Lengua y Cultura Guaraní. Instituição paraguaia de referência para o ensino e a normatização do guarani. https://www.ateneoguarani.edu.py/
  • Aynu itak — Ainu Language Grammar Guide (Silja Ijas). free graded lessons, phrases & vocabulary https://www.aynuitak.org/home
  • Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. l’agence linguistique nationale indonésienne https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/
  • BAKITA. المجلس الوطني للغة السواحيلية في تنزانيا: المرجع المعياري للغة. https://www.bakita.go.tz/
  • Baskisch (euskara) ist eine isolierte Sprache (ohne bekannte Verwandte), gesprochen von ~750.000 Menschen im spanischen und französischen Baskenland; Standard ist Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Siehe „Baskische Sprache“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baskische_Sprache
  • BBC Hausa. Daily authentic news audio and text. https://www.bbc.com/hausa
  • Beginners Welsh (Aberystwyth University). free structured beginners' course https://beginners.welsh/
  • bescherelle.com. La conjugaison pour tous — Il dizionario di coniugazione francese per eccellenza. Indispensabile per interiorizzare le coniugazioni irregolari. Disponibile anche come app. bescherelle.com https://bescherelle.com/
  • Birgit Spechtenhauser and Ulrike Jessner, "Complex Interactions in the Multilingual Mind: Assessing Metalinguistic Abilities and Their Effects on Decoding a New Language System in Trilingual Learners," Lingua 301 (2024): 103678, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2024.103678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2024.103678
  • Blyth, Carl (1997). French and Creole in Louisiana. New York : Plenum Press, p. 40–41 (ISBN 0-306-45464-5) — transcriptions d'entretiens avec des locuteurs cadiens (extraits courts cités via [1]) ; anglicismes conjugués (driver, wringer, freezer) et alternance codique comme marque de compétence bilingue. Confiance : élevée. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_French#Language_samples
  • Boarische Wikipedia (bairische Wikipedia). verständlicher schriftlicher Input auf Bairisch https://bar.wikipedia.org/
  • Bosworth–Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. the standard dictionary, free online https://bosworthtoller.com/
  • Bozena Pajak, Alex B. Fine, Dave F. Kleinschmidt, and T. Florian Jaeger, "Learning Additional Languages as Hierarchical Probabilistic Inference: Insights from First Language Processing," Language Learning 66, no. 4 (2016): 900–944, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5365092/. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5365092/
  • Britannica — Uzbek language. Concise scholarly overview of Uzbek's history, scripts and place in the Turkic family. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uzbek-language
  • Burmese overview. Background on tones, script and grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese_language
  • Canto-Conversations. $100 for a curated set of native-speaker dialogues with vocabulary lists & transcripts. Good value for the content provided. https://canto-conversations.com/
  • CantoDict. Онлайн-словник з Jyutping і прикладами. https://www.cantodict.org/
  • Cantonese to Jyutping. converts Chinese characters to Jyutping romanization. https://jyutping.org/
  • Cantonese.sheik.co.uk. comprehensive dictionary with grammar tools & romanization converters. https://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/
  • Cantonese101.com. a structured, comprehensive course with excellent vocabulary lists, SRS tools, & PDF materials. The platform is self-promotional, but the content quality is high. If committing to this course, the full premium tier is recommended to consolidate all study into one platform. Supplement with iTalki lessons. Expensive. https://www.cantonese101.com/
  • Cardinal numerals (go'o, ɗiɗi, tati, nayi, joyi, jeegom, jeeɗiɗi, jeetati, jeenayi, sappo; noogas 20, teemedere 100, ujunere 1000) per Omniglot, 'Fula numbers'; greetings (jam 'peace', jam tan, jaaraama 'thank you', eey 'yes', alaa 'no') per Fulfulde/Pulaar teaching resources (incl. Univ. of Wisconsin LCTL). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/fula.htm
  • Case system, the five declensions and the four conjugations follow the standard reference: J. B. Greenough et al., Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (Boston: Ginn, 1903), hosted by the Dickinson College Commentaries. https://dcc.dickinson.edu/grammar/latin
  • CC-Canto. Cantonese-English dictionary with Jyutping & audio. https://cantodict.org/
  • CCTV / 央视网. 중국 국영 방송. 생생한 중국어 듣기 연습에. https://www.cctv.com/
  • CeLCAR Turkmen (Indiana University). Üniversite kaynakli Türkmençe ögronme materyalleri ve dil portali. https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/turkmen.html
  • Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region (CeLCAR), Indiana University, "Kyrgyz," language portal, accessed June 23, 2026, https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/kyrgyz.html. https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/kyrgyz.html
  • Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region (CeLCAR), Indiana University, "Pashto," language portal, accessed June 23, 2026, https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/pashto.html. https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/pashto.html
  • Centro Virtual Cervantes. Ressources de l'Instituto Cervantes, l'organisme officiel de la langue espagnole. https://cvc.cervantes.es/
  • Charles N. Li & Sandra A. Thompson, Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), Introduction. https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520066106/mandarin-chinese
  • Chinese Text Project (ctext.org). searchable classical texts with dictionary lookup https://ctext.org/
  • Classical/Literary Chinese (文言文) is the written literary language based on the Warring States classics, used across the Sinosphere for two millennia; “Old Chinese” by contrast refers to the reconstructed spoken language of the Shang–Zhou. See “Classical Chinese.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese
  • Clozemaster. Ефективний інструмент для закріплення лексики в контексті речень. https://www.clozemaster.com/
  • CODOFIL — Conseil pour le développement du français en Louisiane (codofil.la.gov), agence d'État fondée en 1968. Confiance : élevée. https://www.crt.state.la.us/cultural-development/codofil/
  • CODOFIL. Louisiana's official body for French; programs and resources. https://www.codofil.org/
  • Coe & Van Stone, Reading the Maya Glyphs. accessible introduction https://thamesandhudson.com/reading-the-maya-glyphs-9780500285534
  • Coffee Break Italian. Excelente curso de audio estructurado. https://www.coffeebreaklanguages.com/coffeebreakitalian/
  • Coffee Break Spanish. Podcast structuré et progressif pour apprendre l'espagnol par petites étapes. https://coffeebreaklanguages.com/coffeebreakspanish/
  • coffeebreaklanguages.com. Strukturierter Podcast von Null bis Fortgeschrittene, mit klaren Erklärungen (auf Englisch, aber leicht verständlich). Ideal für die ersten Monate. coffeebreaklanguages.com https://coffeebreaklanguages.com/coffeebreakfrench/
  • Colloquial Swahili (Routledge). curso completo para principiantes https://www.routledge.com/Colloquial-Swahili-The-Complete-Course-for-Beginners/Marten-Russell/p/book/9780415580700
  • Community language resources cited here include the Mi'gmaq Online Talking Dictionary (mikmaqonline.org), the Peskotomuhkati-Wolastoqey (Passamaquoddy-Maliseet) Language Portal and its ~19,000-entry dictionary (pmportal.org; 2nd print ed., Univ. of Maine Press), the Western Abenaki Online Dictionary, the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project, the Lenape Talking Dictionary, and the Algonquian Dictionaries & Language Resources Project (M.-O. Junker, with NRC Canada); word forms (Mi'kmaq Kwe', Wela'lin, Pjila'si; Passamaquoddy Woliwon) are taken from these community sources and cross-checked against native-languages.org. https://www.algonquianlanguages.ca/
  • Constanza Quinteros Ortiz, "Navigating Language Learning through Metalinguistic Beliefs: A Theoretical Exploration Informed by Multilingual Narratives," Frontiers in Language Sciences 5 (2026), https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/language-sciences/articles/10.3389/flang.2026.1757671/full. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/language-sciences/articles/10.3389/flang.2026.1757671/full
  • Convert Jyutping ⇔ Yale. bidirectional romanization converter. https://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/tools/jyutping-yale/
  • Convert Traditional ⇔ Simplified. character set converter. https://www.chineseconverter.com/en/convert/chinese-traditional-to-simplified
  • Council of Europe, Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Companion Volume (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 2020), https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages. https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages
  • Daniel Coste, Danièle Moore, and Geneviève Zarate, Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2009). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Plurilingual%20and%20Pluricultural%20Competence%20Coste%20Moore%20Zarate
  • David Salo, Midgardsmal (blog) — the linguist's own account of creating Neo-Khuzdul for Peter Jackson's films, including its Semitic (Arabic-inspired) morphology and film phrases. https://midgardsmal.com/
  • David Somfai Kara, Kyrgyz (Languages of the World/Materials 705) (Munich: LINCOM Europa, 2003), Introduction & Phonology. https://lincom-shop.eu/
  • David W. Green and Jubin Abutalebi, "Language Control in Bilinguals: The Adaptive Control Hypothesis," Journal of Cognitive Psychology 25, no. 5 (2013): 515–530, https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377
  • de.pons.com. Das bekannteste bilinguale Wörterbuch für Deutschsprachige, mit Aussprache, Beispielen und Konjugationstabellen. de.pons.com https://de.pons.com/übersetzung/französisch-deutsch
  • Departamento de Lengua de la Nación Cherokee. La fuente oficial. Lecciones en video, instrucción del silabario y módulos de vocabulario, en inglés. Es el punto de partida más sólido disponible. https://www.cherokee.org/learn-cherokee/
  • Deutsche Welle — Nicos Weg (한국어판). Nicos Weg (한국어판) 입문~B1 — A1~B1 수준의 무료 동영상 강좌. 한국어 자막 포함. 독일 일상생활을 배경으로 자연스러운 독일어를 배울 수 있는 최고의 무료 리소스 중 하나. https://learngerman.dw.com/ko/nicos-weg/c-36519687
  • Deutsche Welle — 독일어 학습 허브. 독일어 학습 허브 모든 수준 — 뉴스 기사를 통한 독해 학습, 단어 테스트 등 다양한 무료 콘텐츠 제공. https://www.dw.com/de/deutsch-lernen/s-2055
  • Dewaele and Wei, "Multilingualism, Empathy and Multicompetence"; Koch, Kersten, and Greve, "An Emotional Advantage of Multilingualism"; Chung-Fat-Yim, Lo, and Mar, "Multilingualism and Mentalizing Abilities in Adults"; Zhang, Yu, and Xu, "Effects of Learning Multiple Foreign Languages"; Wang and Wei, "Is Bilingualism Linked to Well-Being?"; Hubscher-Davidson, "The Psychological Benefits of Multilingualism"; Lee, Ho, and Chen, "Integrating Intercultural Communicative Competence"; Sharifian, "Globalisation and Developing Metacultural Competence." https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2012.714380
  • DGLAi — IRCAM general dictionary. Amazigh–French–Arabic dictionary https://tal.ircam.ma/dglai/
  • Diane Duane, My Enemy, My Ally (1984) and The Romulan Way (1987), collected in The Bloodwing Voyages — the licensed novels that created the Rihannsu language sketch and its cultural core (mnhei'sahe); cited here via the Memory Beta documentation above. https://memory-beta.fandom.com/wiki/Rihannsu
  • Diccionari obert (DACCO). Open Catalan–English dictionary plus the authoritative Institut d'Estudis Catalans dictionary. https://www.dacco.cat/
  • Diccionario AULEX aymara–español. Diccionario práctico en línea. https://aulex.org/ay-es/
  • Diccionario AULEX náhuatl–español. Diccionario práctico de consulta rápida. https://aulex.org/nah-es/
  • Diccionario de la lengua española (RAE). la oficiala vortaro de la hispana lingvo, senpaga https://dle.rae.es/
  • Dicionário Glosbe português–shona. Dicionário com frases de exemplo. https://glosbe.com/pt/sn
  • Dicionário Glosbe português–xhosa. Dicionário com frases de exemplo. https://glosbe.com/pt/xh
  • Dicionário Michaelis (italiano). dicionário de apoio https://michaelis.uol.com.br/
  • Dickinson College Commentaries. annotated Latin texts with core vocabulary lists https://dcc.dickinson.edu/
  • Dictionare ale limbii romane (dexonline). Il grande dizionario online del rumeno, basato sui dizionari accademici. https://dexonline.ro/
  • Dictionario Elhuyar (euskara–espaniol/anglese/francese). dictionario standard, in linea e gratuite https://hiztegiak.elhuyar.eus/
  • Dictionary of Louisiana French. The standard scholarly dictionary, searchable online. https://dictionaryoflouisianafrench.org/
  • Dictionnaire Glosbe français–xhosa. Dictionnaire avec phrases d'exemple. https://glosbe.com/fr/xh
  • Dictionnaire Glosbe français–yorùbá. Dictionnaire avec exemples et audio. https://glosbe.com/fr/yo
  • Dictionnaire québécois. Glossary of québécois words and expressions. http://www.dictionnaire-quebecois.com/
  • DIEC2 — Diccionari de l’Institut d’Estudis Catalans. das maßgebliche einsprachige Wörterbuch https://dlc.iec.cat/
  • Diouf, Grammaire du wolof contemporain (Karthala). Grammaire de référence du wolof moderne (Jean-Léopold Diouf). https://www.karthala.com/
  • Distinctive Caledonian vocabulary (e.g. topette 'beer bottle', tata 'goodbye', kaï-kaï 'food', nakamal 'meeting place', yossi (surprise), Zoreille 'Metropolitan French person', le Caillou 'New Caledonia', and the expressions « Casse pas la tête » and « C'est choc ») per Le Français de Nouvelle-Calédonie : Dictionnaire de Calédonien (Croix du Sud) and 'New Caledonian French.' https://www.croixdusud.info/dico/dic_lettre.php
  • Dizionario Zanichelli (lo Zingarelli). Standardwörterbuch https://dizionaripiu.zanichelli.it/
  • Don Ringe, From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. the standard scholarly account https://global.oup.com/academic/content/series/l/linguistic-history-of-english-lhe/
  • Dreaming Spanish. Vidéos en espagnol compréhensible, classées du niveau super débutant à avancé (input compréhensible). https://www.dreamingspanish.com/
  • DSAL / Biswas Bengali–English dictionaries. Scholarly online dictionaries from the Digital South Asia Library. https://www.uchicago.edu/
  • Duolingo — italiano. basas gratuite pro le habito quotidian https://www.duolingo.com/course/it/en/Learn-Italian
  • Duolingo — Italiano. bases gratuitas, bom para o hábito diário https://pt.duolingo.com/course/it/pt/aprender-italiano
  • Duolingo — Italien. bases gratuites, bon pour l’habitude quotidienne https://fr.duolingo.com/course/it/fr/apprendre-l-italien
  • Duolingo — Italienisch. kostenlose Grundlagen für die tägliche Gewohnheit https://de.duolingo.com/course/it/de/Italienisch-lernen
  • Duolingo — la indonezia (per la angla). senpagaj bazaĵoj (kurso en la angla) https://www.duolingo.com/course/id/en/Learn-Indonesian
  • Duolingo — Latin. gamified basics; useful for habit, not as a primary course https://www.duolingo.com/course/la/en/Learn-Latin
  • Duolingo — Walisisch. kostenlose Grundlagen (Kurs über Englisch) https://www.duolingo.com/course/cy/en/Learn-Welsh
  • Duolingo Catalán (desde español). Curso gratuito pensado justamente para hispanohablantes. https://www.duolingo.com/course/ca/es/Aprende-catalan
  • Duolingo Catalan. A free course, though only from Spanish. [bridge: taught through Spanish, not English] https://www.duolingo.com/course/ca/es/Learn-Catalan
  • Duolingo Hawaiian. A free gamified intro; good for the first few hundred words and basic sentence shapes. https://www.duolingo.com/course/haw/en/Learn-Hawaiian
  • Duolingo Hindi. Free gamified intro; good for the script and first vocabulary. https://www.duolingo.com/course/hi/en/Learn-Hindi
  • Duolingo. 매일 꾸준히 연습하기에 좋은 무료 앱. 초기 어휘와 기초 문장 습득에 유용합니다. ※영어 기반 https://www.duolingo.com/course/de/en/Learn-German
  • Duolingo. 무료 앱으로 매일 조금씩. 초기 단어와 기초 문장 습득에 유용합니다. ※영어 기반 https://www.duolingo.com/course/es/en/Learn-Spanish
  • duolingo.com. Corso di francese dall'italiano con spiegazioni in italiano. Ottimo per creare un'abitudine quotidiana e acquisire vocabulario di base. duolingo.com https://www.duolingo.com/
  • DW — Deutsch lernen. Deutsch lernen — Безкоштовний структурований онлайн-курс від A1 до C1. Українська мова є серед мов інтерфейсу. https://learngerman.dw.com/
  • DWDS — Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. vortaro kun ekzemploj el korpuso https://www.dwds.de/
  • E. O. Ashton, Swahili Grammar (Including Intonation), 2nd ed. (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1947); on Arabic loanwords and orthography cf. Swahili (Bantu language), historical Ajami script. https://archive.org/details/swahiligrammarin0000asht
  • Eastern Abenaki is an Abenakian Eastern Algonquian language of Maine (dialects incl. Penobscot), now dormant. See “Eastern Abenaki language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Abenaki_language
  • Eastern Algonquian is a genetic SUBGROUP of the Algonquian family — about 17 related Indigenous languages of the North American Atlantic coast — not a single language. Its members and internal divisions (e.g. Mi'kmaq; Maliseet-Passamaquoddy; the Abenaki languages; the Southern New England languages incl. Massachusett/Wôpanâak, Narragansett, Mohegan-Pequot, Quiripi; and Delawaran: Munsee and Unami/Lenape; plus the extinct Virginia Algonquian/Powhatan) are described in 'Eastern Algonquian languages' and in the scholarship of Ives Goddard. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages
  • Easy Cantonese. part of the Easy Languages channel group; street interviews with subtitles. https://www.youtube.com/@EasyCantonese
  • Easy German (YouTube). Вуличні інтерв'ю з субтитрами; відмінний розмовний матеріал від A2. https://www.youtube.com/@easygerman
  • ebci.com. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians runs the Kituwah Language Academy and adult learner programs. See ebci.com for current contact information. https://ebci.com/
  • EBS 외국어 강좌 — 스페인어. 스페인어 입문~중급 — 한국어로 진행되는 한국 공영방송의 스페인어 강좌. TV·라디오·온라인으로 수강 가능. https://www.ebs.co.kr/
  • EBS 외국어 강좌 — 프랑스어. 프랑스어 — EBS에서 제공하는 한국어 해설 프랑스어 강좌. 초급부터 체계적으로 학습할 수 있는 방송 강의입니다. 입문~중급 https://www.ebs.co.kr
  • Edgar C. Polome, Swahili Language Handbook (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1967), introduction and lexicon. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED012888
  • Edgar R. Eslit, "The Ethics of Language Learning: Promoting Inclusivity, Cultural Understanding and Effective Communication," Journal of Philosophy and Ethics 5, no. 1 (2023): 17–25. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Eslit%20The%20Ethics%20of%20Language%20Learning%20Promoting%20Inclusivity%20Cultural%20Understanding
  • EITB (ETB1). Basque public TV and a Basque-only newspaper for authentic input. https://www.eitb.eus/eu/
  • El indonesio (bahasa Indonesia) es una lengua austronesia, oficial de Indonesia, entendida por más de 200 millones de personas; escritura latina y fonética. Véase « Idioma indonesio ». https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_indonesio
  • El sözdük (Kirgizca sözlük). Kirgizca çevrimiçi sözlük; temel basvuru kaynagi. https://sozduk.kg/
  • El suajili (Kiswahili) es una lengua bantú, lengua franca de África Oriental, entendida por más de 100 millones de personas (mayormente L2), oficial en Tanzania y Kenia; escritura latina y fonética. Véase « Idioma suajili ». https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_suajili
  • Eldamo — Tolkien Language Database. Comprehensive searchable lexicon of all of Tolkien's languages, with every word cited to its primary source. The essential scholarly reference. https://eldamo.org/
  • Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL, Oxford). literary texts with translations https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/
  • Ellen Bialystok, Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Bialystok%20Bilingualism%20in%20Development%20Language%20Literacy%20and%20Cognition
  • Ellen Bialystok, Fergus I. M. Craik, and Gigi Luk, "Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16, no. 4 (2012): 240–250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Arabic language," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-language
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Georgian language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Georgian-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Georgian-language
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Hindi language," accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindi-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindi-language
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Kazakh language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kazakh-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kazakh-language
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Kurdish language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurdish-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurdish-language
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, "Pashto language," accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pashto-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pashto-language
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Persian language," accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Persian-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Persian-language
  • Encyclopædia Iranica. فارسی زبان، ادب اور ثقافت پر مستند علمی حوالہ (انگریزی میں)۔ https://www.iranicaonline.org/
  • ePSD — Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary. online dictionary http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/
  • esadir.cat. Portale linguistico dei media catalani: pronuncia, toponimi, stile. https://esadir.cat/
  • Everyday greetings (sain nio?, baniha) from the Manchu phrasebook, Wikivoyage, reflecting modern teaching and Sanjiazi spoken usage. https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Manchu_phrasebook
  • Fang Zhang, Wenjun Yu, and Hao Xu, "Effects of Learning Multiple Foreign Languages on Learners' Social Emotional Competence Development," SAGE Open (2025), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/21582440241310323. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/21582440241310323
  • Farzad Sharifian, "Globalisation and Developing Metacultural Competence in Learning English as an International Language," Multilingual Education 3, no. 7 (2013), https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/2191-5059-3-7. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/2191-5059-3-7
  • Fehlen der Kasusflexion, Genus/Artikelsystem, die drei Konjugationen und essere/avere folgen der Standardreferenz: Luca Serianni, Grammatica italiana (Turin: UTET). https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/grammatica-italiana/
  • Fijian alphabet & pronunciation (Omniglot). the special consonant values https://www.omniglot.com/writing/fijian.htm
  • FirstVoices Cherokee. Plataforma comunitaria con grabaciones de audio de palabras y frases. Muy útil para exponerse a la pronunciación nativa. https://www.firstvoices.com/
  • FLAS/university Quechua programs & courses. see “Southern Quechua” for the Cusco-type standard https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Quechua
  • Foochow Romanized（平话字）. 平话字拼音系统的完整说明。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foochow_Romanized
  • Forvo — Arabic pronunciations. مادری بولنے والوں کی آواز — مفخّم اور حلقی آوازوں کے لیے مفید۔ https://forvo.com/languages/ar/
  • Forvo — Georgian pronunciations. Native audio for words and the tricky ejectives. https://forvo.com/languages/ka/
  • Forvo — Hindi pronunciations. মাতৃভাষীর উচ্চারণ — श/स পার্থক্যের জন্য উপযোগী। https://forvo.com/languages/hi/
  • Forvo — Kazakh pronunciations. Native audio for individual words, including the throat consonants. https://forvo.com/languages/kk/
  • Forvo — Kurdish pronunciations. Native-speaker audio for individual words. https://forvo.com/languages/ku/
  • Forvo — Kyrgyz pronunciations. Native audio, useful for ң, ө and ү and for vowel harmony. https://forvo.com/languages/ky/
  • Forvo — Pashto pronunciations. Native audio, helpful for the retroflex consonants and dialect differences. https://forvo.com/languages/ps/
  • Forvo — Persian pronunciations. مادری بولنے والوں کی آواز — ایرانی تلفظ اور مجہول حرکات کے لیے مفید۔ https://forvo.com/languages/fa/
  • Forvo — Tagalog pronunciations. Native audio, useful for ng, the glottal stop and stress placement. https://forvo.com/languages/tl/
  • Forvo — Turkmen pronunciations. Native audio, useful for vowel length and the "th" pronunciation of s and z. https://forvo.com/languages/tk/
  • Forvo — Urdu pronunciations. মাতৃভাষীর উচ্চারণ — ق, ع, غ ধ্বনির জন্য উপযোগী। https://forvo.com/languages/ur/
  • Forvo — Uzbek pronunciations. Native-speaker audio for individual words, useful for the q, x and gʻ sounds. https://forvo.com/languages/uz/
  • Four Counties 四邑（部落格）. 基礎課程、數字與常用句的整理。 http://taishanese.blogspot.com/
  • Frances Karttunen, An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl. the standard dictionary https://www.worldcat.org/title/analytical-dictionary-of-nahuatl/oclc/9686727
  • Free Bengali learning portals. Script charts, basic vocabulary and phrases. https://www.mylanguages.org/learn_bengali.php
  • FSI Cantonese. a free government-produced course. Solid audio content & structured lessons, but uses Yale exclusively & has a dated interface. A strong free option. https://www.livelingua.com/fsi/Cantonese/
  • Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru (GPC) — University of Wales Dictionary. the standard historical dictionary of Welsh, free online https://geiriadur.ac.uk/
  • genki.japantimes.co.jp. El manual universitario de japonés más usado en el mundo fuera de Japón. Diseñado para principiantes, cubre los dos primeros años universitarios y lleva al nivel JLPT N4–N3. Existe versión con explicaciones en inglés; muchos hispanohablantes lo usan con un diccionario bilingüe. genki.japantimes.co.jp https://genki.japantimes.co.jp/
  • Geoffrey Lewis, Turkish Grammar, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), Introduction. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/turkish-grammar-9780198700364
  • German with Jenny (YouTube). 문법을 체계적으로 설명하는 영어 기반 강의. 격 변화·동사 활용 설명이 명확합니다. ※영어 진행 https://www.youtube.com/@GermanWithJenny
  • Glosbe English–Amharic dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences and Fidäl. https://glosbe.com/en/am
  • Glosbe English–Burmese dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/my
  • Glosbe English–Hausa dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/ha
  • Glosbe English–Shona dictionary. Searchable dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/sn
  • Glosbe English–Xhosa dictionary. Dictionary with example sentences. https://glosbe.com/en/xh
  • Glosbe English–Yorùbá dictionary. Dictionary with examples and audio. https://glosbe.com/en/yo
  • Glosbe español–aymara. Diccionario con ejemplos. https://glosbe.com/es/ay
  • Glosbe magyar-torok. Ketnyelvu szotar peldamondatokkal. https://hu.glosbe.com/hu/tr
  • Glosbe Nederlands–Xhosa woordenboek. Woordenboek met voorbeeldzinnen. https://glosbe.com/nl/xh
  • Glosbe Türkçe-Kazakça. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/kk
  • Glosbe Türkçe-Kirgizca. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/ky
  • Glosbe Türkçe-Özbekçe. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/uz
  • Glosbe Türkçe-Türkmençe. Çift yönlü sözlük ve örnek cümleler. https://tr.glosbe.com/tr/tk
  • Glosbe हिन्दी–बांग्ला शब्दकोश. उदाहरण वाक्यों सहित शब्दकोश। https://glosbe.com/hi/bn
  • glosbe.com/pa/en. glosbe.com/pa/en — 含真实语料库例句的双语词典。 https://glosbe.com/pa/en
  • GMA / ABS-CBN News (Filipino). Berita dan televisi dalam bahasa Filipino untuk menyimak bahasa nyata. https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/
  • Goethe-Institut. A nemet nyelv es kultura hivatalos intezmenye; vizsgak es anyagok. https://www.goethe.de/
  • goethe.de/br. Com sedes em São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Curitiba e Salvador. Cursos presenciais e online, exames oficiais. goethe.de/br https://www.goethe.de/ins/br/pt/index.html
  • goethe.de/it. La massima autorità per l'apprendimento del tedesco. Sedi a Roma, Milano, Napoli, Palermo, Torino, Genova, Trieste e Firenze. Offre corsi dall'A1 al C2 e gli esami Goethe-Zertifikat riconosciuti in tutto il mondo. goethe.de/it https://www.goethe.de/ins/it/it/index.html
  • goethe.de/pt. A principal autoridade para o ensino do alemão. A sede em Lisboa oferece cursos do A1 ao C2 e os exames Goethe-Zertifikat reconhecidos em todo o mundo. goethe.de/pt https://www.goethe.de/ins/pt/pt/index.html
  • Google Translate. useful for quick lookups; Cantonese quality is inconsistent. https://translate.google.com/
  • Graham Mallinson, 'Rumanian', in The Romance Languages, ed. Martin Harris & Nigel Vincent (London: Routledge, 1988), sezioni su articolo e caso. https://www.routledge.com/The-Romance-Languages/Harris-Vincent/p/book/9780415161176
  • Greetings (Akkam, Nagaa, Gaarii, Galatoomi, Akkam bulte) and the cardinal numerals (tokko, lama, sadii, afur, shan, jaha, torba, saddeet, sagal, kudhan) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and the Oromia Language & Cultural Academy. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/oromo.htm
  • Greetings (ʻIa ora na, Māuruuru, ʻE, ʻAita, Nana/Pārahi) and the cardinal numerals (hōʻē, piti, toru, maha, pae, ono, hitu, vaʻu, iva, ʻahuru) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and the Académie Tahitienne; spellings of the ʻeta and macron follow Académie usage and are flagged for community review. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tahitian.htm
  • Greetings (Ndeewo, Kedụ, Ọ dị mma, Daalụ, Biko, Ee, Mba, Ndo) and the cardinal numerals (otu, abụọ, atọ, anọ, ise, isii, asaa, asatọ, itoolu, iri) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and the Harvard ELIAS Igbo materials. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/igbo.php
  • Greetings (Wáa sá i yatee?) and numerals from the Tlingit phrase book Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá! = Say It in Tlingit (tlingitlanguage.com) and the Chilkat Indian Village phrase list. https://tlingitlanguage.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Lingit-xh_einaxh-Sa.pdf
  • Greetings, courtesy phrases and the numerals one to ten from “Useful phrases in Livonian,” Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/livonian.htm
  • Greetings, courtesy phrases, self-introduction forms and the Polish-influenced orthography from “Useful phrases in Wymysorys,” Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/wymsorys.htm
  • Guarani Ñe'ẽ (recursos e dicionários). Portal de Wolf Lustig com gramática, textos e dicionários de guarani. https://www.guarani.de/
  • guidetojapanese.org. Gramática japonesa completa y gratuita en inglés, con un enfoque diferente al de los libros de texto convencionales. Muy valorada por aprendices avanzados que quieren entender la lógica profunda del japonés. guidetojapanese.org https://guidetojapanese.org/
  • Gunther Wagner, “Yuchi grammar,” in Handbook of American Indian Languages vol. 3 (1938), as summarised in “Yuchi language,” Wikipedia — SOV agglutinative structure; animate/inanimate noun classification and shape classes; pronoun series with inclusive/exclusive and gendered registers; tense/aspect/mood suffixes; locative prefixes and suffixes; negation and interrogative suffixes. Some of Wagner's analyses have been disputed by later scholars (Ballard 1978; Speck 1939). https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_tqw_morsyn-2/page/292/mode/2up
  • HABE. La red oficial de escuelas de euskera y sus materiales de autoaprendizaje. https://www.habe.euskadi.eus/
  • Hansen & Quinn, Greek: An Intensive Course. fast, grammar-first, thorough drills https://www.fordhampress.com/9780823216635/greek-an-intensive-course/
  • Harvard Geoffrey Chaucer Website. texts, glosses and audio of Chaucer's Middle English https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/
  • Hausa overview. Background on tone, gender and the Boko script. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_language
  • Heli Chatelain, Grammatica elementar do Kimbundu ou lingua de Angola (Genebra: Typ. de Charles Schuchardt, 1888-89). Dominio publico. https://archive.org/details/kimbundugrammar00chatgoog
  • Historisches Lexikon Bayerns — Dialekte. wissenschaftlicher Überblick (Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften) https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/EN:Bavarian_Dialects
  • HIVE — Guide for WoW Languages. Community compilation of Warcraft language corpora across races — breadth reference. https://www.hiveworkshop.com/pastebin/0533a888904bd4867929dffd884d60b8.1799
  • Hiwwe wie Driwwe — The Pennsylvania German Newspaper (hiwwe-wie-driwwe.com), gegründet von Michael Werner — die Mundartzeitung der ≈100 aktiven Deitsch-Autoren, seit 2002 gedruckt und online erscheinend; als externe Bestätigung der lebendigen Schriftkultur herangezogen (abgerufen 2026-07-03). https://hiwwe-wie-driwwe.com/
  • Hokkien 概览. — 了解方言分布与音系。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkien
  • How to count in Tamazight (Languages and Numbers). native numerals https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-tamazight/en/tzm/
  • Howard I. Aronson, Georgian: A Reading Grammar, corrected ed. (Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1990), Introduction; on the Fereydani Georgians cf. 'Georgia ii: History of Iranian-Georgian Relations,' Encyclopaedia Iranica. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-ii-history
  • Howard I. Aronson, Georgian: A Reading Grammar, corrected ed. (Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1990), on the ergative ("narrative") case in the aorist series. https://www.slavica.com/
  • https://ling-app.com/ https://ling-app.com/
  • https://seedlang.com/ https://seedlang.com/
  • https://storylearning.com/ https://storylearning.com/
  • https://www.innovativelanguage.com/ https://www.innovativelanguage.com/
  • https://www.memrise.com/ https://www.memrise.com/
  • https://www.renshuu.org/ https://www.renshuu.org/
  • https://www.vocab.ai/hypertts https://www.vocab.ai/hypertts
  • https://www.youtube.com/@EasyLanguages https://www.youtube.com/@EasyLanguages
  • ʻĀhaʻi ʻŌlelo Ola. Authentic listening input from contemporary Hawaiian-language broadcasting. https://aha.fm/
  • Idioma galés (visión general). clasificación, historia, estado https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_gal%C3%A9s
  • iGuarani (dicionário online). Dicionário guarani-espanhol-português com conjugador. https://www.iguarani.com/
  • Ikasten.io. Official Basque-government self-study platforms and the euskaltegi (Basque-school) system. https://www.ikasten.io/
  • Il basco (euskara) è una lingua isolata (senza parenti noti), parlata da ~750.000 persone nei Paesi Baschi spagnoli e francesi; lo standard è l’Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Vedi « Lingua basca ». https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_basca
  • Indigenous-language online dictionary. Searchable dictionaries for Formosan languages (interface mostly in Chinese). https://e-dictionary.ilrdf.org.tw/
  • Indonesische uitdrukkingen (Omniglot). Veelgebruikte zinnen met uitspraak. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/indonesian.php
  • Infopédia — Dicionário Espanhol-Português (Porto Editora). Dicionário Espanhol-Português (Porto Editora) todos os níveis — Dicionário bilingue fiável de uma editora portuguesa de referência. https://www.infopedia.pt/dicionarios/espanhol-portugues
  • Inject Jyutping. overlays Jyutping romanization on Chinese characters in-browser. https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/inject-jyutping/
  • Inspirlang. Jade Jia Ying Wu offers private lessons independently. More expensive than iTalki/Preply, but valuable for advanced learners or those with specific interest in Taishanese. She is also the author of the Learn to Speak Cantonese beginner series (Volumes I & II). https://www.inspirlang.com/
  • Institut d'Estudis Catalans, Gramatica de la llengua catalana (Barcelona: IEC, 2016). https://giec.iec.cat/
  • institutfrancais-brasil.com. Com sedes em São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Porto Alegre, Recife, Salvador e Brasília. Cursos presenciais e online, exames DELF/DALF. institutfrancais-brasil.com https://www.institutfrancais-brasil.com/
  • institutfrancais-portugal.com. A rede cultural oficial da França em Portugal, com sede em Lisboa. Oferece cursos do A1 ao C2, certificações DELF/DALF e eventos culturais. institutfrancais-portugal.com https://www.institutfrancais-portugal.com/
  • institutfrancais.com. Red cultural oficial de Francia en el exterior, con programación cultural y recursos para hispanohablantes. institutfrancais.com https://www.institutfrancais.com/
  • institutfrancais.de. Das offizielle Kulturinstitut Frankreichs in Deutschland, mit Standorten in Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg, München, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf und Freiburg. Sprachkurse aller Niveaus (A1–C2), DELF/DALF-Prüfungsvorbereitung und Kulturprogramm. institutfrancais.de https://www.institutfrancais.de/
  • institutfrancais.it. Rete culturale ufficiale della Francia in Italia, con sedi a Torino, Milano, Roma, Napoli e Palermo. Offre corsi, certificazioni DELF/DALF (A1–C2) e numerosi eventi culturali. institutfrancais.it https://www.institutfrancais.it/
  • Instituto Cervantes / AVE Global. L'ente ufficiale per la lingua spagnola, con corsi strutturati per livello. https://www.cervantes.es/
  • Instituto Cervantes de Lisboa. Cursos oficiais de espanhol e exames DELE em Portugal. https://lisboa.cervantes.es/
  • Institutul Limbii Romane. Istituto ufficiale per la promozione del rumeno; materiali e certificazioni. https://www.ilr.ro/
  • IRCAM — Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture. standard, grammars, curricula https://www.ircam.ma/
  • isiXhosa overview. Background on clicks, classes and orthography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_language
  • isiZulu overview. Orientation to clicks, classes and orthography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu_language
  • isiZulu.net. Excellent dictionnaire zulu–anglais en ligne avec conjugaisons. https://isizulu.net/
  • it.pons.com. Dizionario tedesco-italiano — Dizionario online completo con esempi d'uso, coniugazioni e audio. Ottimo per verificare generi e casi. it.pons.com https://it.pons.com/traduzione/tedesco-italiano
  • Italienisch ist eine romanische indogermanische Sprache mit rund 65 Millionen Muttersprachlern, Amtssprache in Italien, San Marino, der Vatikanstadt und Teilen der Schweiz. Siehe „Italienische Sprache“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italienische_Sprache
  • iTalki. Заняття з носіями мови та професійними викладачами. Багато слов'яномовних викладачів іспанської. https://www.italki.com/referral?r=f0Fcbf
  • italki.com. La plataforma de referencia para encontrar tutores de japonés. Hay muchos profesores nativos que hablan español o tienen experiencia enseñando a hispanohablantes. La conversación regular con un nativo es el modo más rápido de integrar el ritmo, la entonación y las estructuras naturales. italki.com https://www.italki.com/
  • J. Richard Andrews, Introduction to Classical Nahuatl. standard textbook (revised edition) https://www.oupress.com/9780806138244/introduction-to-classical-nahuatl/
  • J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, Appendices E–F — primary source for the Cirth/Angerthas writing systems, pronunciation, the battle-cry and the Dwarves' outer-name custom (cited via the encyclopedic sources above). https://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Cirth
  • JACT, Reading Greek. the Joint Association of Classical Teachers' reading course https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/reading-greek/
  • James Neil Sneddon, The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2003), Introduction. https://unsw.press/
  • James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian. the standard modern textbook https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/middle-egyptian/
  • Jangawolof. Cours et phrases de base en wolof, avec audio, pour débutants. https://jangawolof.org/
  • Jàngileen. Online Wolof lessons and vocabulary built by and for learners. https://www.jangileen.com/
  • Japan Foundation, «Survey Report on Japanese-Language Education Abroad 2021» (diakses 2026-07-03) — 711.732 pembelajar bahasa Jepang di Indonesia, peringkat ke-2 dunia setelah Tiongkok (1.057.318); total dunia ±3,79 juta pembelajar formal di 141 negara/wilayah. Confidence: tinggi (sumber resmi). https://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/japanese/survey/result/survey21.html
  • japanesepod101.com. Lecciones en audio y vídeo con explicaciones en inglés, organizadas por nivel desde N5 hasta N1. Su punto fuerte es el audio con diálogos nativos lentos y normales. Tiene versión gratuita con contenido limitado. japanesepod101.com https://www.japanesepod101.com/
  • japonestotal.com. El recurso en español más completo sobre japonés en internet. Explica gramática, escritura y vocabulario desde cero, en español, con ejercicios y lecciones estructuradas. Creado por Agustín Sanz, uno de los hispanohablantes con mayor nivel de japonés en la comunidad de aprendizaje. japonestotal.com https://www.japonestotal.com/
  • Jasmine Dum-Tragut, Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2009), Introduction. https://benjamins.com/catalog/loall.14
  • jdzb.de. Fördert den wissenschaftlichen und kulturellen Austausch zwischen Japan und Deutschland. Veranstaltungen, Stipendien und Ressourcen für Japanisch-Lernende. jdzb.de https://www.jdzb.de/
  • Jeju Talking Dictionary (Swarthmore). A Jejueo dictionary with audio; the best resource for checking pronunciation. http://talkingdictionary.swarthmore.edu/jeju/
  • Jelena Mihaljević Djigunović, "Language Learning Methodology for Adults: A Study of Linguistic Transfer," Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 142 (2014): 318–324, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.641
  • Jing Wang and Rining Wei, "Is Bilingualism Linked to Well-Being? Evidence from a Big-Data Survey," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (2023), https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/is-bilingualism-linked-to-wellbeing-evidence-from-a-bigdata-survey/3B4033E84A8A3E1B320CE64625DCCD86. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/is-bilingualism-linked-to-wellbeing-evidence-from-a-bigdata-survey/3B4033E84A8A3E1B320CE64625DCCD86
  • jisho.org. Die beste kostenlose Online-Datenbank für Japanisch. Suche auf Englisch, aber mit japanisch-deutschen Übersetzungsabdeckung. Enthält JLPT-Niveau, Kanji-Details, Beispielsätze. jisho.org https://jisho.org/
  • jlpt.jp. Examen de Competencia en Japonés (日本語能力試験) — El examen oficial del japonés, gestionado por la Japan Foundation y el Japan Educational Exchanges and Services. Tiene cinco niveles: N5 (principiante) a N1 (avanzado). Se realiza en centros de examen en España, México, Argentina, Chile y otros países hispanohablantes dos veces al año. Es el estándar internacional de certificación. jlpt.jp https://www.jlpt.jp/e/about/index.html
  • John Butt & Carmen Benjamin, A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish, 5th ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), capitolele despre ser/estar si despre 'falsos amigos'. https://www.routledge.com/A-New-Reference-Grammar-of-Modern-Spanish/Butt-Benjamin/p/book/9781444137699
  • John Huehnergard, A Grammar of Akkadian. the standard teaching grammar https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-922-7.html
  • John L. Hayes, A Manual of Sumerian Grammar and Texts. widely used teaching grammar https://www.worldcat.org/title/manual-of-sumerian-grammar-and-texts/oclc/44269284
  • Joseph Wright, A Middle High German Primer. classic primer, free on the Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/middlehighgerman00wrig
  • Joseph Wright, An Old High German Primer. classic primer, free on the Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/oldhighgermanpri00wriguoft
  • jpf.go.jp/d/de. Die offizielle Kulturinstitution Japans in Deutschland mit Sitz in Köln. Bietet Sprachkurse, Bibliothek, kulturelle Veranstaltungen und Informationen zu JLPT-Prüfungszentren in Deutschland. jpf.go.jp/d/de https://www.jpf.go.jp/d/de/
  • Jubin Abutalebi and David W. Green, "Control Mechanisms in Bilingual Language Production: Neural Evidence from Functional Neuroimaging," Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19, no. 7 (2007): 557–584, https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701620226. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701620226
  • Jubin Abutalebi et al., "The Organization of Multiple Languages in Polyglots: Interference or Independence?," Journal of Neurolinguistics 20, no. 1 (2007): 25–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.01.003. The author's draft supplied only the lead author; the remaining names and all bibliographic details are reproduced as given and not independently verified [UNVERIFIED]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.01.003
  • Judith F. Kroll and Erika Steinhauer, "Bilingual Brain Science: Language Control and the Co-activation of Languages," Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 28 (2008): 140–161, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190508080070. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190508080070
  • Kabar / Ala-Too 24 (Kirgiz medyasi). Kirgiz haber ajansi: okuma ve güncel dil pratigi. https://kabar.kg/
  • Kamusi Project — dictionario e grammatica. dictionario swahili e notas de grammatica (classes nominal) https://kamusi.org/
  • Karen Lichtman and Bill VanPatten, “Was Krashen Right? Forty Years Later,” Foreign Language Annals 54, no. 2 (2021): 283–305, https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12552. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1304023
  • Karin C. Ryding, A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Introduction. https://www.cambridge.org/9780521777711
  • Katalanisch ist eine eigenständige romanische Sprache mit ~9–10 Mio. Sprechern, amtlich in Katalonien, auf den Balearen und (als Valencianisch) in Valencia sowie alleinige Amtssprache Andorras. Siehe „Katalanische Sprache“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalanische_Sprache
  • Kees de Bot, Wander Lowie, and Marjolijn Verspoor, "A Dynamic Systems Theory Approach to Second Language Acquisition," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10, no. 1 (2007): 7–21, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732
  • Ket Language — research overview (EBSCO Research Starters). documentation & Vajda's fieldwork https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/language-and-linguistics/ket-language
  • Kettunen & Helmke, Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs (free PDF, Wayeb). the standard free introduction to the script https://www.wayeb.org/resources/
  • Keyi Kang, Yumeng Xiao, Hanxiang Yu, Michele T. Diaz, and Haoyun Zhang, "Multilingual Language Diversity Protects Native Language Production under Different Control Demands," Brain Sciences 13, no. 11 (2023): 1587, https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/11/1587. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/11/1587
  • Kimbundu (Omniglot). Visão geral do alfabeto, números e textos de referência em quimbundo. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kimbundu.htm
  • Kimeltuwe. Free graphic materials (posters, vocabulary, grammar) that are very clear for starting out. https://www.kimeltuwe.org/
  • King Sejong Institute — Nuri-Sejonghakdang. free official Korean-learning resources https://www.iksi.or.kr/
  • KLI Forum — Vulcan discussion. The Klingon Language Institute also maintains discussion areas for other Star Trek languages including Vulcan. https://www.kli.org/
  • klokah.tw — Indigenous Languages e-learning. Indigenous Languages e-learning all levels — The official Taiwan platform: words, dialogues, audio and lessons for each Amis dialect. The best, most authoritative starting point. http://web.klokah.tw/
  • Kosmos Society (Harvard CHS) — learning modules. free video Intro to Attic Greek (with Hansen & Quinn) https://kosmossociety.chs.harvard.edu/learning-modules/
  • L’absence de genre, d’articles et de conjugaison, les marqueurs d’aspect (sudah/sedang/akan) et le système d’affixes suivent la référence : James N. Sneddon, Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar (Routledge). https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/
  • L’indonésien (bahasa Indonesia) est une langue austronésienne, langue officielle de l’Indonésie, comprise par plus de 200 millions de personnes ; écriture latine, phonétique. Voir « Indonésien ». https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indon%C3%A9sien
  • L’italien est une langue romane indo-européenne, environ 65 millions de locuteurs natifs, officielle en Italie, à Saint-Marin, au Vatican et dans une partie de la Suisse. Voir « Italien ». https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italien
  • La ausencia de género/artículos, el sistema de clases nominales (m-/wa- clase 1/2) con concordancia y la morfología verbal (prefijo de sujeto + marcador de tiempo + raíz) siguen a TUKI y a M. Marten & Russell, Colloquial Swahili (Routledge). https://kamusi.org/content/noun-classes
  • La eŭskara (euskara) estas izola lingvo (sen konataj parencoj), parolata de ~750.000 homoj en la hispana kaj franca Eŭskio; la normo estas Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Vidu „Eŭska lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADska_lingvo
  • La germana lingvo — superrigardo (Vikipedio). historio, strukturo kaj disvastiĝo https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germana_lingvo
  • La hispana estas latinida hindeŭropa lingvo kun pli ol 480 milionoj da denaskaj parolantoj, oficiala en Hispanio kaj ~20 landoj de Hispanameriko. Vidu «Hispana lingvo» / “Spanish language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language
  • La hispana lingvo — superrigardo (Vikipedio). historio, disvastiĝo kaj strukturo https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispana_lingvo
  • La indonezia (bahasa Indonesia) estas aŭstronezia lingvo, oficiala en Indonezio, komprenata de pli ol 200 milionoj da homoj; latina, fonetika skribo. Vidu „Indonezia lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonezia_lingvo
  • La itala estas latinida hindeŭropa lingvo kun ĉirkaŭ 65 milionoj da denaskaj parolantoj, oficiala en Italio, San-Marino, Vatikano kaj parto de Svislando. Vidu „Itala lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itala_lingvo
  • La kataluna estas propra latinida lingvo kun ~9–10 milionoj da parolantoj, oficiala en Katalunio, la Balearoj kaj (kiel valencia) en Valencio, kaj la sola oficiala lingvo de Andoro. Vidu „Kataluna lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kataluna_lingvo
  • La kvar-kaza sistemo, la difinaj artikoloj laŭ genro/kazo, la persona konjugacio kaj la V2-vortordo sekvas la normreferencon: Martin Durrell, Hammer's German Grammar and Usage, 6-a eld. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017). https://archive.org/details/hammersgermangra0000durr_b4y1
  • La substantiva genro, la kvar artikoloj, la persona konjugacio, kaj la distingo ser/estar sekvas la normreferencon: Real Academia Española kaj Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, Nueva gramática de la lengua española (Madrid: Espasa, 2009). https://www.rae.es/
  • La svahila (Kiswahili) estas bantua lingvo, interlingvo de Orienta Afriko, komprenata de pli ol 100 milionoj (plejparte L2), oficiala en Tanzanio kaj Kenjo; latina, fonetika skribo. Vidu „Svahila lingvo“. https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svahila_lingvo
  • Language Creation Society (conlang.org) — community definitions of conlang types and goals; the conlang flag flown on this page (Babel tower before a rising sun) was chosen by vote of the CONLANG mailing list community in 2004 and is used as the community's emblem. https://conlang.org/
  • Language Reactor. enhances Netflix & YouTube with dual subtitles, pop-up definitions, & sentence mining. https://www.languagereactor.com/
  • Language revitalization in Wilamowice (University of Warsaw). the revival programme http://www.revitalization.al.uw.edu.pl/eng/Wymysorys/63/71/language-revitalization-in-wilamowice--a-new
  • Language Transfer — Complete Spanish. senpaga aŭdkurso kiu bone taŭgas por pensemaj lernantoj https://www.languagetransfer.org/
  • Langue galloise (aperçu). classification, histoire, statut https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallois
  • Langue māorie (aperçu). classification, histoire, statut https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maori_(langue)
  • Larousse 法汉词典. 收录发音符号、例句及词性标注，是可靠的在线法汉参考工具。 全级别 https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais-chinois
  • larousse.fr. El diccionario bilingue de referencia más conocido en el mundo hispanohablante. Disponible en línea y en papel, con ejemplos de uso y tablas de conjugación. larousse.fr https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/espagnol-francais
  • larousse.fr. Il dizionario bilingue di riferimento più usato nel mondo italofono. Disponibile online e cartaceo, con esempi d'uso e tavole di coniugazione. larousse.fr https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/italien-francais
  • larousse.fr. O dicionário bilingue de referência mais usado no mundo lusófono. Disponível online e em formato físico, com exemplos de uso e tabelas de conjugação. larousse.fr https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/portugais-francais
  • Larry Clark, Turkmen Reference Grammar (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998), Introduction & Phonology. https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/Turkmen_Reference_Grammar/titel_1454.ahtml
  • Latin is an Italic Indo-European language, historically the language of Rome and the Roman Empire, ancestor of the Romance languages and long the language of Western scholarship and the Catholic Church; it remains the official language of Vatican City. See “Latin.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
  • Latinitium. spoken-Latin resources, podcast and articles https://latinitium.com/
  • Laurence C. Thompson, A Vietnamese Reference Grammar (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987), Introduction. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/35055
  • lawlessfrench.com. Grammatica francese spiegata in modo chiaro, organizzata per argomenti. È in inglese, ma è la referenza grammaticale online più completa disponibile. lawlessfrench.com https://www.lawlessfrench.com/
  • Le basco (euskara) es un lingua isolate (sin parentes cognoscite), parlate per ~750.000 personas in le Pais Basco espaniol e francese; le standard es le Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Vide „Lingua basc“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_basc
  • Le catalano es un lingua romanic proprie con ~9–10 milliones de parlatores, official in Catalonia, le Balears e (como valencian) in Valentia, e le sol lingua official de Andorra. Vide „Lingua catalan“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_catalan
  • Le germano es un lingua germanic occidental con 90+ milliones de parlatores native, le plus parlate in le UE, official in Germania, Austria, Liechtenstein e le Suissa. Vide „Lingua german“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_german
  • Le indonesian (bahasa Indonesia) es un lingua austronesian, official in Indonesia, comprendite per plus de 200 milliones de personas; scriptura latin e phonetic. Vide „Lingua indonesian“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_indonesian
  • Le italiano es un lingua romanic indoeuropee, circa 65 milliones de parlatores native, official in Italia, San Marino, le Vaticano e in parte del Suissa. Vide „Lingua italian“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_italian
  • Le swahili (Kiswahili) es un lingua bantu, lingua franca del Africa oriental, comprendite per plus de 100 milliones de personas (majoritariemente L2), official in Tanzania e Kenya; scriptura latin e phonetic. Vide „Lingua swahili“. https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_swahili
  • Learn te reo Māori (New Zealand Government). official overview and pathways to courses https://www.govt.nz/browse/history-culture-and-heritage/maori-language-culture-and-heritage/te-reo-maori-maori-language/
  • Learn Welsh / Dysgu Cymraeg (National Centre for Learning Welsh). the official adult-learner programme; courses at every level https://learnwelsh.cymru/
  • LearnAmo. Lively, all-Italian lessons that scale from beginner to advanced. https://www.youtube.com/c/LearnAmoItalian
  • LearnGaelic.scot. national learning portal & dictionary https://learngaelic.scot/
  • learngerman.dw.com. A Deutsche Welle oferece o curso gratuito Nicos Weg (A1–B1) com vídeos e exercícios. Disponível em português. learngerman.dw.com https://learngerman.dw.com/pt/aprender-alem%C3%A3o/s-9171
  • learngerman.dw.com. Deutsch Welle offre il corso gratuito Nicos Weg (A1–B1) con video, esercizi e spiegazioni. Alcune sezioni sono disponibili con interfaccia in italiano. learngerman.dw.com https://learngerman.dw.com/it/imparare-il-tedesco/s-9170
  • Legonium. free graded Latin stories with audio https://legonium.com/
  • Lenape Talking Dictionary. Unami Lenape, with audio https://www.talk-lenape.org/
  • Lewis, Turkish Grammar (Oxford). A torok nyelvtan klasszikus referenciamuve. https://global.oup.com/
  • Lexer, Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch (online). the standard MHG dictionary https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=Lexer
  • Lia Rumantscha. Die Dachorganisation der Rätoromanen: Kurse, Materialien und Beratung. https://www.liarumantscha.ch/
  • Liliya M. Gorelova, Manchu Grammar, Handbook of Oriental Studies 8.7 (Leiden: Brill, 2002); on Manchu as a head-final, exclusively suffixing agglutinative language and the language of the Qing archive. Overview corroborated by “Manchu language,” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_language
  • Ling App. gamified language learning in the style of Duolingo. Strong dialogues, good for review & daily habit-building. Recommended. https://www.ling-app.com/
  • LingQ. (free & paid tiers) — best suited for intermediate learners. Combines a multilingual dictionary, native-speaker audio, AI-generated TTS, & an integrated SRS. Supports .EPUB import for reading Cantonese texts. Optimized for tablet use (iPad recommended). Tap unknown words while reading to get instant definitions & add them to your word bank. https://www.lingq.com/
  • Lingua gallese (panoramica). classificazione, storia, stato https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_gallese
  • Lingua Latina Per Se Illustrata (Ørberg, Familia Romana). Latin taught entirely in Latin by graded reading; widely loved for building fluency https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Latina_per_se_illustrata
  • Lingua maori (panoramica). classificazione, storia, stato https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_maori
  • Linguee Português-Espanhol. Tradução em contexto com exemplos reais retirados de textos bilingues. https://www.linguee.pt/portugues-espanhol
  • Live Lingua — Peace Corps Georgian. Free public-domain Peace Corps Georgian course materials. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/georgian
  • Live Lingua — Peace Corps Kazakh. Free public-domain Peace Corps Kazakh course books and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/kazakh
  • Live Lingua — Peace Corps Kyrgyz. Free public-domain Peace Corps Kyrgyz course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/kyrgyz
  • Live Lingua — Peace Corps Tagalog. Free public-domain Peace Corps Tagalog course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/tagalog
  • Live Lingua — Peace Corps Turkmen. Free public-domain Peace Corps Turkmen course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/turkmen
  • Live Lingua — Peace Corps Uzbek. Free public-domain Peace Corps Uzbek course materials and audio. https://www.livelingua.com/courses/uzbek
  • Livonian Institute, University of Latvia, “Multifunctional Dictionary of Livonian (2021–2024)” — the Institute (founded 2018) and its dictionary giving full declensions and conjugations; a corpus of older Livonian is archived at the University of Tartu. https://www.livonian.lv/en/research-projects/multifunctional-dictionary-of-livonian-2021-2024/
  • Lo swahili (Kiswahili) è una lingua bantu, lingua franca dell’Africa orientale, compresa da oltre 100 milioni di persone (per lo più L2), ufficiale in Tanzania e Kenya; scrittura latina e fonetica. Vedi « Lingua swahili ». https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_swahili
  • Logeion (University of Chicago). combined Latin (and Greek) dictionaries, free, with app https://logeion.uchicago.edu/
  • LSJ — Liddell–Scott–Jones online. the standard Ancient Greek lexicon https://lsj.gr/
  • LU Līvõ Institūt — Livonian Institute, University of Latvia. research, dictionary, news https://www.livonian.lv/en/
  • Lughayangu - Kimbundu. Dicionário e frases comuns em quimbundo com tradução. https://lughayangu.com/kimbundu
  • Lyam M. Bailey, Kate Lockary, and Eve Higby, "Cross-Linguistic Influence in the Bilingual Lexicon: Evidence for Ubiquitous Facilitation and Context-Dependent Interference Effects on Lexical Processing," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 27, no. 3 (2024): 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000597. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000597
  • Made with Lau. a YouTube channel & website featuring traditional Cantonese recipes narrated with integrated Cantonese vocabulary & language content. Highly recommended for combining cultural immersion with practical cooking. https://www.madewithlau.com/
  • Madinah Arabic / Durusul Lughah. Materi klasik bahasa Arab yang populer di pesantren dan kalangan pemula. https://www.madinaharabic.com/
  • Mahican (Mohican) is an Eastern Algonquian language of the upper Hudson Valley (community now Stockbridge-Munsee, Wisconsin), dormant and being revitalized. See “Mahican language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahican_language
  • Mango Languages. falls between Cantonese101 & Ling in scope & approach. Solid course; may be accessible free via a library card. Choose one course platform & commit to it rather than switching between options. https://mangolanguages.com/
  • Māori (te reo Māori) is an Eastern Polynesian language, Indigenous to Aotearoa New Zealand and an official language since the Maori Language Act 1987; it is the subject of a major revitalization movement (kōhanga reo, kura kaupapa). See “Māori language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language
  • maprofdefrançais. A Quebec teacher explaining québécois features clearly. https://www.youtube.com/@maprofdefrancais
  • Martin Durrell, Hammer's German Grammar and Usage, 6th ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), Introduction. https://www.routledge.com/Hammers-German-Grammar-and-Usage/Durrell/p/book/9781138177208
  • Martin J. Koch, Kristin Kersten, and Werner Greve, "An Emotional Advantage of Multilingualism," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 27, no. 5 (2024): 950–963, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000937. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728923000937
  • Martin Maiden & Cecilia Robustelli, A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2007), Introduction. https://www.routledge.com/A-Reference-Grammar-of-Modern-Italian/Maiden-Robustelli/p/book/9780340913390
  • Materiais do ALUPEC. A ortografia oficial e descrições gramaticais publicadas em Cabo Verde. https://www.facebook.com/
  • Max W. Wheeler, Alan Yates & Nicolau Dols, Catalan: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 1999), capitolo sul 'passat perifrastic' (vaig + infinitiu). https://www.routledge.com/Catalan-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Wheeler-Yates-Dols/p/book/9780415207775
  • Memory Alpha — Vulcan language. The Star Trek wiki's catalogue of canon Vulcan words and phrases from all productions, with episode citations. https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Vulcan_language
  • Merrill Swain, “Communicative Competence: Some Roles of Comprehensible Input and Comprehensible Output in Its Development,” in Input in Second Language Acquisition, ed. Susan M. Gass and Carolyn G. Madden (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1985), 235–53. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ511935
  • Mi’gmaq–Mi’kmaq Online Talking Dictionary. community dictionary with audio https://www.mikmaqonline.org/
  • Mi’kmaq is an Eastern Algonquian language of the Maritimes/Gaspé/Maine, the most-spoken of the group (~7,000), written in the Smith–Francis orthography. See “Mi’kmaq language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language
  • Michael Fuller, An Introduction to Literary Chinese. widely used textbook https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674043725
  • Michael H. Long, “The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition,” in Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, ed. William C. Ritchie and Tej K. Bhatia (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996), 413–68. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED507194
  • Middle English Dictionary (University of Michigan). the standard dictionary, free online https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/
  • Middle English is the stage of English c. 1150–1500, following the Norman Conquest's loss of inflection and influx of French vocabulary; its major author is Chaucer. See “Middle English.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English
  • Middle High German (c. 1050–1350) is the High German of the medieval courtly epics and Minnesang (Nibelungenlied; Walther von der Vogelweide). See “Middle High German.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_High_German
  • Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1990). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Csikszentmihalyi%20Flow%20The%20Psychology%20of%20Optimal%20Experience
  • Mohegan-Pequot is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian language of Connecticut/Long Island, dormant (cf. Fidelia Fielding’s diaries) and reawakening. See “Mohegan-Pequot language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohegan-Pequot_language
  • Nā Kai ʻEwalu. The standard university textbook series used in Hawaiian-medium programmes. https://nflrc.hawaii.edu/
  • Nahuatl Dictionary (IDIEZ / Wired Humanities). Gran diccionario en línea con ejemplos. https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/
  • Narragansett is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian language of Rhode Island, recorded in Roger Williams’ 1643 A Key into the Language of America. See “Narragansett language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narragansett_language
  • National Institute of Korean Language (국립국어원). the official language authority of South Korea https://www.korean.go.kr/
  • Native-Languages.org — Algonquian family. overview & links to community programs http://www.native-languages.org/famalg.htm
  • Nayiri.com. Класичні вірменські словники онлайн; незамінні для пошуку слів. https://www.nayiri.com/
  • Netflix. filter by original Cantonese audio for authentic immersion content. https://www.netflix.com/
  • News in Slow Spanish. A atualidade lida devagar e explicada, ideal para treinar a compreensão oral. https://www.newsinslowspanish.com/
  • newsinslowfrench.com. Attualità mondiale letta lentamente e commentata, perfetta per il livello intermedio. Esiste versione base e intermedia. newsinslowfrench.com https://www.newsinslowfrench.com/
  • NHK World — Easy Japanese. free public-broadcaster beginner lessons https://www.nhk.or.jp/lesson/en/
  • nhk.or.jp/lesson. Das japanische Rundfunksystem NHK bietet täglich kurze Japanisch-Lektionen. Die Hauptplattform ist auf Englisch, aber die Struktur ist für Deutschsprachige gut zugänglich; zusätzlich gibt es nhk.or.jp/lesson für grundlegende Lektionen. nhk.or.jp/lesson https://www.nhk.or.jp/lesson/
  • nhk.or.jp/lesson/es. Nihongo Easy Japanese (en español) — El servicio público japonés NHK ofrece un curso gratuito de japonés básico con explicaciones en español. Cubre las situaciones cotidianas más frecuentes con audio, texto y ejercicios. Ideal para los primeros meses. nhk.or.jp/lesson/es https://www.nhk.or.jp/lesson/es/
  • nhk.or.jp/nhkworld. Noticias y documentales japoneses con textos y audio, muchos con subtítulos. El portal completo para inmersión mediática. nhk.or.jp/nhkworld https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/
  • NHKラジオ まいにちスペイン語. 日本語話者向けの定番ラジオ講座。テキストも市販されており、独学の柱になります。 https://www.nhk.or.jp/gogaku/spanish/
  • NHKラジオ まいにちフランス語. 日本語話者向けの定番ラジオ講座。入門・応用編があり、テキストも市販されています。日本語解説で体系的に学べる頼れる柱です。入門〜中級 https://www.nhk.or.jp/gogaku/french/
  • Nina Woll and Pierre-Luc Paquet, "Developing Crosslinguistic Awareness through Plurilingual Consciousness-Raising Tasks," Language Teaching Research 29, no. 1 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211056544
  • Nipmuc is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian variety of central Massachusetts, dormant and thinly documented (cf. the ‘Loup’ records). See “Loup language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loup_language
  • Numbers in Igbo (Omniglot). the numeral system https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/igbo.htm
  • Numerals (dua, rua, tolu, va, lima, ono, vitu, walu, ciwa, tini) and core greetings (Bula, Vinaka, Io, Sega, Moce) per standard usage, cross-checked against Omniglot and Schütz (1985). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/fijian.htm
  • Numerals and basic vocabulary follow common written Zurich-German (Züritüütsch) usage; because there is no standard orthography, spellings vary by writer and region. Cross-checked against Omniglot, 'Numbers in Swiss German', and 'Zurich German.' https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/swissgerman.htm
  • Numerals one to ten (Cyrillic orthography with IPA), including the subtractive forms for eight and nine, from “Ket numbers,” Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/ket.htm
  • O basco (euskara) é uma língua isolada (sem parentes conhecidos), falada por ~750.000 pessoas no País Basco espanhol e francês; o padrão é o Euskara Batua (Euskaltzaindia). Ver « Língua basca ». https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_basca
  • O catalão é uma língua românica própria com ~9–10 milhões de falantes, oficial na Catalunha, Baleares e (como valenciano) em Valência, e única língua oficial de Andorra. Ver «Língua catalã». https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_catal%C3%A3
  • O italiano é uma língua românica indo-europeia, cerca de 65 milhões de falantes nativos, oficial na Itália, em San Marino, no Vaticano e em parte da Suíça. Ver «Língua italiana». https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_italiana
  • Office for National Statistics, “Welsh language, Wales: Census 2021” — 538,300 speakers aged 3+ (17.8%); ~25% with some skills; decline since 2011. UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger classes Welsh as ‘vulnerable’. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/welshlanguagewales/census2021
  • Offices publics de la langue basque (Iparralde). Cours et réseaux d'apprentissage côté français. https://www.mintzalasai.eus/
  • Official Ithkuil site — ithkuil.net. John Quijada's own site, with the full grammar of New Ithkuil (2023) and archives of earlier versions. The essential starting point. https://ithkuil.net/
  • Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg (Public Office for the Breton Language). official promotion body https://www.brezhoneg.bzh/
  • Oʻzbek tilining izohli lugʻati. Özbekçenin açiklamali sözlügü ve yazim kaynaklari. https://savodxon.uz/
  • Oʻzbekiston Milliy teleradiokompaniyasi (O'zMTRK). Özbek devlet radyo-televizyonu: haber ve programlar, dinleme pratigi. https://mtrk.uz/
  • Old English (Anglo-Saxon) is the earliest attested stage of English, a West Germanic language of c. 450–1150, heavily inflected and the language of Beowulf. See “Old English.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English
  • Old High German (c. 750–1050) is the earliest attested stage of the High German dialects, defined by the High German consonant shift; its texts include the Hildebrandslied. See “Old High German.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_German
  • Olga Kepinska et al., "Language Combinations of Multilinguals Are Reflected in Their First-Language Knowledge and Processing," Scientific Reports 13 (2023): 1947, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27952-2. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27952-2
  • Ömer Eren, "Towards Multilingual Turn in Language Classes: Plurilingual Awareness as an Indicator of Intercultural Communicative Competence," International Journal of Multilingualism 21, no. 2 (2024): 783–801, https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2022.2090568. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2022.2090568
  • Omniglot — Arabic. عربی حروفِ تہجی، شکلیں اور تلفظ، نمونہ جملوں کے ساتھ۔ https://www.omniglot.com/writing/arabic.htm
  • Omniglot — Georgian. The Mkhedruli alphabet, sounds and useful phrases at a glance. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/georgian.htm
  • Omniglot — Kazakh. The Cyrillic and Latin alphabets, sounds and phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kazakh.htm
  • Omniglot — Kurdish. Clear overview of the alphabets, sounds and useful phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kurdish.htm
  • Omniglot — Pashto. The Perso-Arabic alphabet with its extra Pashto letters, plus sample phrases. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/pashto.htm
  • Omniglot — Useful phrases in Bavarian (Englisch). Grüße, Höflichkeitsformeln und Alltagsphrasen https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/bavarian.php
  • Omniglot, "Hindi (हिन्दी)," accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/hindi.htm. On Devanagari and Bengali both being Brahmic abugidas. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/hindi.htm
  • Omniglot, "Persian (Farsi / فارسی)," writing system, the 28 Arabic letters plus the four added Persian letters پ چ ژ گ, accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/persian.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/persian.htm
  • Omniglot：Fuzhounese. 福州话与平话字概览、范例与发音说明。 https://www.omniglot.com/chinese/fuzhounese.htm
  • Omniglot：Shanghainese. 上海话与拼音、常用语概览。 https://www.omniglot.com/chinese/shanghainese.htm
  • On Amazigh grammar — the feminine circumfix t-…-t; the two noun states (état libre vs état d'annexion / construct state, in which the noun's initial vowel changes after a preposition or as a post-verbal subject); verb–subject–object order; the independent pronouns; the aspect-based verb (aorist / perfective / imperfective stems, with the future particle ad); and negation with ur … (ara) — cf. Kossmann, The Berber Languages, and IRCAM grammatical resources. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages
  • On Arabic word order (VSO/SVO), the dual number, and case marking, see "Arabic grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_grammar
  • On Bengali (Eastern Indo-Aryan) lacking grammatical gender and the ergative case, in contrast to Hindi's perfective ergative "ne" (verb agrees with the object), see "Ergative–absolutive alignment" and "Hindustani grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_grammar
  • On distinctive features of Zurich/High Alemannic — the k → ch shift (Kind → Chind), the loss of the simple past (Präteritum) in favour of the Perfekt (ich bi gange), the replacement of the genitive by vo + dative, and the pervasive diminutive -li — cf. Russ, The Dialects of Modern German (Routledge, 1990); and 'Zurich German.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurich_German
  • On Drehu (qene drehu) — an Austronesian (Loyalty Islands) Kanak language of Lifou with ~12,000–13,000 speakers, a French regional language taught at INALCO (since 1973) and the University of New Caledonia, regulated by the Académie des Langues Kanak (ALK, founded 2007); its Latin orthography (incl. ë /ɛ/, ö /ʌ/, doubled vowels for length, voiceless-nasal digraphs hm/hn/hng/hny, and dr/tr) and the chiefly register qene miny — cf. 'Drehu language' and the ALK. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drehu_language
  • On endangerment and revitalization: most Eastern Algonquian languages are critically endangered, dormant, or being revitalized (Mi'kmaq ~7,000 speakers; Maliseet-Passamaquoddy fewer than ~600 fluent, mostly elderly; Massachusett/Wôpanâak being reawakened from documents) — cf. 'Mi'kmaq language' and 'Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi'kmaq_language
  • On Fijian basic word order (verb-initial, typically VOS), the two articles (common na, personal o/ko) and the pronoun system (with inclusive/exclusive and dual/paucal distinctions), cf. Dixon, R. M. W., A Grammar of Boumaa Fijian (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); and Schütz (1985). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijian_language
  • On Fula (Fulfulde / Pulaar / Pular) — an Atlantic (Senegambian, Niger–Congo) language of a dialect continuum spoken by ~25–40 million people across the Sahel from Senegal to Sudan; its noun-class system and marking of plurals by initial-consonant mutation; and its implosive consonants — cf. 'Fula language' and Arnott, D. W., The Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_language
  • On Fula writing: the Latin orthography with the special letters ɓ and ɗ (implosives), ƴ (a glottalized y) and ŋ; the older Ajami (Arabic) tradition; and the Adlam script, created for Fula in 1989 by the brothers Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry of Guinea — cf. 'Fula alphabets.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_alphabets
  • On Gunalchéesh (‘thank you’, carrying the sense ‘it would not be possible without you’) and the use of ‘how are you?’ as a greeting where Tlingit traditionally had none: “10 Tlingit Words We Should All Be Using in Southeast Alaska,” Peter Stanton (Medium), and community phrase lists. https://peterwstanton.medium.com/10-tlingit-words-we-should-all-be-using-in-southeast-alaska-940034322222
  • On Hangul as a featural alphabet (consonant shapes modelling the speech organs; vowels from heaven/earth/human strokes), its 24 basic letters and syllable-block structure, and its promulgation in 1446 under King Sejong, cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); and 'Hangul.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul
  • On Igbo (Asụsụ Igbo) — a Volta–Niger (Niger–Congo) language of southeastern Nigeria with ~30 million speakers; its standard Önwu orthography (Latin, 1962), including the dot-below vowels ị [ɪ], ụ [ʊ], ọ [ɔ] and ṅ [ŋ]; and its three phonemic tones (high, mid, low, marked with acute/grave accents) — cf. 'Igbo language' and Emenanjọ, Nolue, A Grammar of Contemporary Igbo (Oxford/Port Harcourt: M&J Grand Orbit, 2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_language
  • On Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) as an Austronesian language with SVO order, no grammatical gender, no obligatory plural inflection (plurality shown by reduplication, buku-buku 'books'), and no verb conjugation for person or tense, cf. Sneddon, James N., Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 1996); and 'Indonesian language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_language
  • On Japanese basic word order (Subject–Object–Verb, verb-final; topic-prominent) and the particle system (は topic, が subject, を object, に goal/time, で location of action, の possessive), cf. Shibatani, Masayoshi, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge University Press, 1990); and 'Japanese particles.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_particles
  • On Japanese phonology — five vowels /a i u e o/, predominantly open (consonant–vowel) syllables, and mora-timed rhythm (long vowels counting as two morae) — cf. 'Japanese phonology'; Shibatani, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge, 1990). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology
  • On Korean basic word order (Subject–Object–Verb, verb-final) and the case/topic particle system attached to nouns, cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), chs. on syntax and case marking. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_grammar
  • On Korean speech levels / grammaticalised politeness (합니다체 formal-polite, 해요체 informal-polite, 반말 plain), cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), ch. on honorifics and speech levels. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_speech_levels
  • On Kyrgyz rounding (labial) vowel harmony extending to low vowels (the four-way plural), cf. Lars Johanson & Eva A. Csato, eds., The Turkic Languages (London: Routledge, 1998), the Kyrgyz chapter. https://www.routledge.com/The-Turkic-Languages/Johanson-Csato/p/book/9780415412612
  • On Nengone (p'ene nengone, also Iwatenu/Maré) — an Austronesian (Loyalty Islands) Kanak language of Maré and Tiga with ~8,700 speakers, a French regional language and baccalauréat option, regulated by the Académie des Langues Kanak (ALK); its Latin script with no single standard spelling; and its three social registers (Pene Animac everyday, P'ene Iwateno formal, P'ene Egesho for conflict) — cf. 'Nengone language' and the ALK. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nengone_language
  • On New Caledonian French (français calédonien / néo-calédonien) as a dialect of French — based on Metropolitan French, the territory's official language and near-universal lingua franca, with influences from Kanak languages, Australian English, Bislama, Tayo Creole, Tahitian, Wallisian, Javanese and Vietnamese — cf. 'New Caledonian French.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonian_French
  • On Oromo (Afaan Oromoo) — an Eastern Cushitic (Afroasiatic) language, the most widely spoken language in Ethiopia and the fourth-most spoken in Africa, written since 1991 in the Latin-based Qubee orthography (with digraphs ch, dh [implosive], ny, ph, sh, ts, zh); and its contrastive vowel length (doubled vowels: hara 'lake' vs haaraa 'new') and gemination (doubled consonants: badaa 'bad' vs baddaa 'highland') — cf. 'Oromo language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oromo_language
  • On Paicî's contrastive tone — three registers (high, mid, low), unusual for Oceanic languages, with tone often belonging to the word — and its verb–object–subject word order, cf. Rivierre, Jean-Claude, 'Tons et segments du discours en langue paicî' (Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris 69, 1974); and Rivierre, Dictionnaire paicî–français (Paris: SELAF, 1983). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paic%C3%AE_language
  • On Pashto's past-tense ergativity (verb agrees with the object) and the parallel aspect-conditioned ergative "ne" construction in Hindi/Urdu, see "Pashto grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_grammar
  • On Pashto's past-tense ergativity (verb agrees with the object) and the parallel aspect-conditioned ergative construction ("ne") in Punjabi's transitive perfective, see "Pashto grammar," Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_grammar, and "Punjabi grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_grammar
  • On Pashto's retained past-tense ergativity versus Persian's shift to a nominative-accusative system, see "Ergative construction," Encyclopædia Iranica, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ergative-construction/. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ergative-construction/
  • On Persian noun plurals (-hā and animate -ān) and the absence of grammatical gender on nouns, see "Persian nouns," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_nouns. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_nouns
  • On Persian's lack of grammatical gender, its SOV word order, the ezafe (kasra) construction, and the absence of an ergative/"ne"-type past construction, see "Persian grammar," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_grammar
  • On Tahitian (Reo Tahiti / Reo Māʻohi) phonology and orthography — five vowels distinguishing length (marked with the macron, tārava) and the consonants f, h, m, n, p, r, t, v plus the phonemic glottal stop (ʻeta) — as standardised by the Académie Tahitienne (Fare Vānaʻa), the recognised language authority; cf. 'Tahitian language.' The exact shape of the ʻeta is not fully fixed; this guide uses the turned-comma form and flags it for review. https://www.farevanaa.pf/
  • On Tahitian verb–subject–object word order and the pre-verbal tense–aspect markers (ʻua completive, tē … nei present-progressive, e future/imperfective) and the articles (te 'the', te mau plural), cf. Tryon, Darrell T., Conversational Tahitian (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970); and 'Tahitian language.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahitian_language
  • On the 15-phoneme system (ten consonants incl. ng and wh, five vowels), and the macron (tohutō) marking phonemic vowel length, see “Māori language” and Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori. https://www.tetaurawhiri.govt.nz/
  • On the 23-letter Roman alphabet (I and V doing double duty as vowel and consonant), macrons as a modern editorial aid, and the restored classical vs. ecclesiastical pronunciations, see “Latin spelling and pronunciation” and W. Sidney Allen, Vox Latina. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_spelling_and_pronunciation
  • On the 24-letter Greek alphabet, the rough/smooth breathings, and the polytonic pitch-accent system (acute, grave, circumflex), see “Greek alphabet” and W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet
  • On the 29-letter alphabet with digraphs (ch, dd, ff, ng, ll, ph, rh, th), w and y as vowels, and the regular, largely phonemic orthography, see “Welsh orthography.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_orthography
  • On the Arabic definite article al- and its assimilation before sun letters (e.g. ash-shams) versus moon letters (al-qamar), see "Sun and moon letters," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters
  • On the Australian-English anglicisms in New Caledonian French (paddock, run, station, stock, creek, tata, etc.), cf. Gay, Jean-Christophe, « Influences australiennes en Nouvelle-Calédonie » (HAL-SHS). https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03590330v1/document
  • On the Drehu numeral system — a quinary structure: tripi '5', the 6–9 forms ending in -ngömen ('on the next hand'), and luepi '10' (lit. 2×5) — cf. Omniglot, 'Drehu numbers' (data from Wolfgang Kuhl); and Lenormand, Maurice, Dictionnaire de la langue de Lifou: le qene drehu (Nouméa, 1999). https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/drehu.htm
  • On the heavy borrowing of Persian vocabulary and the Perso-Arabic script into Urdu, see Encyclopædia Britannica, "Urdu language," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language
  • On the Korean polite past tense (verb stem + -았어요 after a bright ㅏ/ㅗ vowel, -었어요 otherwise, 하다 → 했어요), the question words, and the two negations (pre-verbal 안 'not' and 못 'cannot', plus the long form -지 않다), cf. Sohn, Ho-min, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), chapters on verbal morphology and negation; and 'Korean verbs.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_verbs
  • On the Manchu alphabet, its vertical Mongolian-derived letters, and Dahai’s 1632 tongki fuka (“dots and circles”) reform: “Manchu alphabet,” Wikipedia / Omniglot. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_alphabet
  • On the medial diglossia of German-speaking Switzerland (spoken Swiss German / Alemannic dialect used in nearly all everyday situations vs written Swiss Standard German) and the absence of any official, standardised Swiss-German orthography, cf. Russ, Charles V. J., The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey (London: Routledge, 1990); and 'Swiss German.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_German
  • On the Nengone numeral system — quinary (sedongò '5'; 6–9 built as 'sedong ne …'; ruenin '10') — and the counting classifiers (ehna for plural animates, ko for a precise quantity, so for inanimates and dead animals), cf. Omniglot, 'Nengone numbers.' https://www.omniglot.com/language/numbers/nengone.htm
  • On the Paicî numerals — caapwi (1), êrêilû (2), êrêcié (3), êrêpëpé (4) — and the body-based counting system (using î 'hand', â 'foot', and âboro 'man' for larger counts), cf. 'How to count in Paicî' (Languages and Numbers) and the LDD Paicî Language Snapshot. Regulated by the Académie des Langues Kanak (ALK). https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-paici/en/pri/
  • On the Persian alphabet (32 letters including پ چ ژ گ) and the Urdu script being a later modification of it, see "Persian alphabet," Wikipedia, accessed June 25, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_alphabet, and Omniglot, "Urdu," https://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_alphabet
  • On the polite verb paradigm (-ます present, -ました past, -ません negative, -ませんでした past-negative) and the two adjective classes (い-adjectives, which inflect — 高い → 高くない — and な-adjectives, which take だ/です and じゃない), cf. Shibatani, Masayoshi, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge University Press, 1990), chapters on verbal and adjectival morphology; and 'Japanese verb conjugation.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_verb_conjugation
  • On the pre-verbal aspect/time particles sudah (completed), sedang (in progress), akan (future) and belum ('not yet') — used instead of tense conjugation — cf. Sneddon (1996), who distinguishes these aspect markers from adjuncts of time. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_grammar
  • On the Semitic triliteral root-and-pattern morphology underlying Arabic word formation, see Encyclopædia Britannica, "Semitic languages: Morphology," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages
  • On the Shahmukhi (Perso-Arabic) script for Punjabi and its retroflex letters, see "Shahmukhi," Wikipedia, accessed June 24, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahmukhi; for Pashto's script see CeLCAR, Indiana University, "Pashto," https://celcar.indiana.edu/materials/language-portal/pashto.html. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahmukhi
  • On the three scripts and their division of labour — hiragana for native words and grammatical elements (particles, verb/adjective endings), katakana for loanwords and foreign names, and logographic kanji for content-word roots — cf. Shibatani, Masayoshi, The Languages of Japan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and 'Japanese writing system.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_writing_system
  • On the two Korean numeral systems (native Korean 하나/둘/셋… vs Sino-Korean 일/이/삼…) and their division of labour (native for counting things, people, age and the hour; Sino-Korean for dates, money, minutes, phone numbers and numbers ≥100), cf. 'Korean numerals'; National Institute of Korean Language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_numerals
  • On the two numeral series — Sino-Japanese (一 ichi, 二 ni, 三 san …) used with counters and for most numbers, and the native series (一つ hitotsu, 二つ futatsu …) used to count general objects up to ten — cf. 'Japanese numerals.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_numerals
  • On the Urdu alphabet being a Perso-Arabic abjad derived from the Persian (and thence Arabic) script, written right-to-left, see Omniglot, "Urdu," accessed June 25, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm
  • On the very large Arabic loan layer in Persian (and Persian's lack of grammatical gender and broken plurals), see "Arabic Language v. Arabic Elements in Persian," Encyclopaedia Iranica, accessed June 24, 2026, https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arabic-v/. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arabic-v/
  • On the writing systems — the indigenous Tifinagh script (from the ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet) and Neo-Tifinagh as standardised by IRCAM (33 letters, the sole official script for Tamazight in Morocco since 2003, written left-to-right) — alongside Latin and Arabic transcriptions — cf. 'Tifinagh.' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifinagh
  • Optimot — consultas linguísticas. motor de busca de gramática, ortografia e vocabulário https://aplicacions.llengua.gencat.cat/llc/AppJava/index.html
  • Oromia Language & Cultural Academy. Qubee and useful phrases https://oromiaacademy.wordpress.com/oromo-language/
  • Overzicht van isiXhosa. Achtergrond over kliks, klassen en spelling. https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhosa_(taal)
  • Overzicht van isiZulu. Oriëntatie op kliks, klassen en spelling. https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoeloe_(taal)
  • Paideia Institute — Living Latin (self-paced). free 60-unit introductory course https://www.paideiainstitute.org/living_latin
  • Parf Edhellen — Elvish Dictionary. Community Elvish dictionary with search, Sindarin / Quenya entries, and a forum for learner questions. https://www.elfdict.com/
  • parla.cat. cursos gratuite de catalano de tote le nivellos (Generalitat de Catalunya) https://www.parla.cat/
  • Parla.cat. The official free online course from the Generalitat de Catalunya, from A1 to C1. https://parla.cat/
  • Parma Eldalamberon / Vinyar Tengwar — Elvish Linguistic Fellowship. The journals that publish Tolkien's primary manuscripts, including key Sindarin texts and grammar fragments. https://www.elvish.org/
  • Passamaquoddy (Peskotomuhkati) is a dialect of the Maliseet-Passamaquoddy Eastern Algonquian language of Maine/New Brunswick, critically endangered. See “Malecite–Passamaquoddy language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malecite%E2%80%93Passamaquoddy_language
  • Paul Newman, The Hausa Language: An Encyclopedic Reference Grammar (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), Introduction; cf. Philip J. Jaggar, Hausa (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2001). https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300081893/the-hausa-language/
  • Paul Schachter & Fe T. Otanes, Tagalog Reference Grammar (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), Introduction. https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520049437/tagalog-reference-grammar
  • Peace Corps Georgian (درس‌های صوتی). درس‌های پایه‌ی رایگان با فایل صوتی. https://www.livelingua.com/peace-corps/Georgian/
  • Peace Corps Niger — cours de haoussa. Manuel et audio pour débutants, contexte nigérien. https://www.livelingua.com/peace-corps/Hausa/
  • Peace Corps Wolof manuals. Free, thorough PDF courses written for volunteers heading to Senegal; the gold standard for self-study. https://www.peacecorps.gov/educators/resources/
  • Penobscot is a dialect of Eastern Abenaki (Eastern Algonquian) of the Penobscot River, Maine; dormant and revitalizing from records. See “Penobscot language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penobscot_language
  • Perseus Digital Library. texts with word-by-word parsing and dictionary lookup https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/
  • Peskotomuhkati-Wolastoqey Language Portal. Passamaquoddy-Maliseet dictionary + videos https://pmportal.org/
  • Peter S. Baker, Introduction to Old English. companion site “Old English Aerobics,” free exercises https://oldenglishaerobics.net/
  • Phrases utiles en haoussa (Omniglot). Répertoire de phrases courantes avec prononciation. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/hausa.php
  • Phrases utiles en wolof (Omniglot). Répertoire de phrases courantes avec prononciation. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/wolof.php
  • Piscataway (Conoy) is an Eastern Algonquian language of the Maryland Potomac, closely related to Nanticoke, dormant and thinly documented. See “Nanticoke language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanticoke_language
  • Platts & DSAL Urdu dictionaries. The classic scholarly Urdu/Hindi–English dictionaries online. https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/
  • Pleco (중국어 사전 앱). 필기·음성 입력을 지원하는 대표 중국어 사전 앱. https://www.pleco.com/
  • Pledari Grond. Das grosse Wörterbuch Deutsch–Rumantsch Grischun, online und gratis. https://www.pledarigrond.ch/
  • PONS 사전. 신뢰도 높은 독일어-영어/한국어 사전. 예문과 숙어 검색에 유용합니다. https://www.pons.com/
  • pons.com. Umfangreiches zweisprachiges Wörterbuch für Deutschsprachige. Deckt Alltagsvokabular und Fachterminologie ab. Auch als App verfügbar. pons.com https://de.pons.com/japanisch-deutsch
  • Powhatan (Virginia Algonquian) is an Eastern Algonquian language of Tidewater Virginia, extinct in the late 18th century, known from early records (Smith, Strachey). See “Powhatan language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powhatan_language
  • Preply. a comparable alternative to iTalki; well-regarded by both tutors & learners. https://preply.com/
  • Pri la kvin-vokala sistemo, la (preskaŭ) fonetika ortografio kaj la akcentreguloj, vidu “Spanish orthography” kaj “Spanish phonology.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_orthography
  • Pri la umlaŭtoj (ä ö ü), la ß, la majuskligo de substantivoj kaj la prononcaj reguloj, vidu “German orthography” kaj “Standard German phonology.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography
  • ProfeDeELE. Atividades, vídeos e fichas de gramática de espanhol como língua estrangeira, organizados por nível. https://www.profedeele.es/
  • Proto-Germanic is the reconstructed (unattested) common ancestor of the Germanic languages, c. 500 BCE–200 CE, defined by innovations such as Grimm's Law; all forms are reconstructions marked with *. See “Proto-Germanic language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language
  • pt.pons.com. Alemão-Português — Dicionário online completo com exemplos de uso, conjugações e áudio. Excelente para verificar géneros e casos. pt.pons.com https://pt.pons.com/traducao/alemao-portugues
  • Public Radio of Armenia. News and broadcasting for authentic Eastern Armenian listening. https://www.armradio.am/
  • Qazaqstan RTV (Qazaqstan Ulttyq arnasy). Kazak devlet televizyonu: haber ve programlar, dinleme pratigi. https://qazaqstan.tv/
  • R. H. Robins, The Yurok Language: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon (University of California Press, 1958), and A. Garrett, Basic Yurok / 'Learning Yurok: An Outline of Grammar' (UC Berkeley Yurok Language Project), on the Yurok pronominal-prefix paradigm ('ne- 1st, k'e- 2nd, 'we-/'ue- 3rd) used for noun possession and for subjunctive/naming verbs. https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~yurok/web/LY/LY-4.3.html
  • r/Cantonese. active community for questions, resources, & general Cantonese content. https://www.reddit.com/r/Cantonese/
  • r/ithkuil (Reddit). Community for questions, translations and discussion of all versions of the language. https://www.reddit.com/r/ithkuil/
  • Rádios e TV de Cabo Verde (RTC). Audição autêntica do dia a dia. https://gl.wikipedia.org/
  • RAI (radio si televiziune). Radio si televiziune publica italiana in streaming: stiri, seriale, podcasturi. https://www.raiplay.it/
  • Raihan Muhamedowa, Kazakh: A Comprehensive Grammar (London: Routledge, 2016), Introduction, Phonology & Writing System. https://www.routledge.com/Kazakh-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Muhamedowa/p/book/9781138828254
  • Ramona Goenczoel-Davies, Romanian: An Essential Grammar (London: Routledge, 2008), Introduction. https://www.routledge.com/Romanian-An-Essential-Grammar/Gonczol-Davies/p/book/9780415437998
  • Rebecca L. Oxford, "Language Learning Strategies: An Update," ERIC Digest, 2011, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED523722.pdf. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED523722.pdf
  • Rekhta. A vast archive of Urdu poetry with script, transliteration and meanings — a joy for learners. https://www.rekhta.org/
  • Reverso / WordReference. Dictionaries with real example sentences and forums. https://dictionary.reverso.net/english-italian/
  • RFI Haoussa. Actualités en haoussa : du haoussa réel à lire et écouter. https://www.rfi.fr/ha/
  • rfi.fr/fr/lf. Radio France Internationale (Français facile) — Radio pubblica francese con emissioni in francese standard chiaro. Il servizio Français facile offre articoli in francese semplificato con audio. rfi.fr/fr/lf https://www.rfi.fr/fr/lf/
  • Richard R. Day and J. Bamford, Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Extensive%20Reading%20in%20the%20Second%20Language%20Classroom%20Day%20Bamford
  • Richard Schmidt, "The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning," Applied Linguistics 11, no. 2 (1990): 129–158, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129
  • Romanizations in this guide follow the Revised Romanization of Korean, the official system of the Republic of Korea promulgated by the National Institute of Korean Language in 2000. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean
  • Romanizations in this guide follow the widely-used Hepburn system, employed here as a learning aid alongside the Japanese script. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization
  • RTC — radio y TV de Cabo Verde. radio y TV de Cabo Verde intermedio — Escucha auténtica del día a día. https://www.rtc.cv/
  • RTR — Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha. Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha intermédiaire — Radio et télévision en romanche pour l'écoute authentique. https://www.rtr.ch/
  • RTS (Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise). Radio et télé sénégalaises : du wolof réel à écouter. https://www.rts.sn/
  • RTVE. La télévision publique espagnole : journaux, documentaires et séries pour une écoute authentique. https://www.rtve.es/
  • Rûdaw / Kurdistan24. Kurdish-language news media for authentic reading and listening. https://www.rudaw.net/
  • Russell Jones (general editor), Loan-Words in Indonesian and Malay (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007); kajian KBBI mencatat 800+ serapan Arab. Lih. juga 'Arabic loanwords in Indonesian'. https://www.worldcat.org/title/loan-words-in-indonesian-and-malay/oclc/166872599
  • Ságastallamin — the Sámi languages (UiT). academic overview from the Arctic University of Norway https://site.uit.no/sagastallamin/the-sami-languages/
  • Sayuri Hayakawa and Viorica Marian, "Consequences of Multilingualism for Neural Architecture," Behavioral and Brain Functions 15, no. 6 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-019-0157-z. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-019-0157-z
  • Scotland's Census 2022 (National Records of Scotland), reported via “Scottish Gaelic,” Wikipedia — 69,701 able to speak Gaelic; ~130,161 with some skills; 3,551 with Gaelic as main language; first census increase in over a century. UNESCO Atlas classes Scottish Gaelic as ‘definitely endangered’. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic
  • Sealaska Heritage Institute, “SHI’s Language Department,” on its Tlingit revitalisation work, including the language endowment and mentor–apprentice immersion programme; Alaska made its twenty Native languages official in 2014. https://sealaskaheritage.org/shi-language-department/
  • Secretaría de Políticas Lingüísticas (Paraguay). Materiales oficiales, normativa y publicaciones en guaraní. https://www.spl.gov.py/
  • Séverine Hubscher-Davidson, "The Psychological Benefits of Multilingualism," OpenLearn, The Open University, March 13, 2019, https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/learning-languages/the-benefits-of-multilingualism. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/learning-languages/the-benefits-of-multilingualism
  • Shared structural features — polysynthesis (sentence-length verb words), an animate/inanimate gender system, obviation (the 'fourth person'/proximate–obviative contrast), and rich verb agreement — are general Algonquian traits; cf. 'Algonquian languages' and Goddard. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algonquian_languages
  • Shona overview. A solid orientation to dialects, classes and orthography. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shona_language
  • Simon Ager, "Kyrgyz language and alphabets," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirghiz.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirghiz.htm
  • Simon Ager, "Tagalog language, alphabet and pronunciation," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tagalog.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/tagalog.htm
  • Simon Ager, "Turkmen language, alphabets and pronunciation," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/turkmen.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/turkmen.htm
  • Simon Ager, "Uzbek language and alphabets," Omniglot, accessed June 23, 2026, https://www.omniglot.com/writing/uzbek.htm. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/uzbek.htm
  • Sobre a camada tupi no português brasileiro, cf. Antonio Geraldo da Cunha, Dicionario Historico das Palavras Portuguesas de Origem Tupi (Sao Paulo: Melhoramentos/USP, 1978); e Eduardo de Almeida Navarro, Dicionario de Tupi Antigo (Sao Paulo: Global, 2013). https://www.usp.br/
  • Sobre el caudal de prestamos espanoles (~4.000 palabras; 20-33% del lexico), cf. la documentacion de la Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino y los estudios de Llamzon & Thorpe (1972). https://kwf.gov.ph/
  • Sohn, The Korean Language (Cambridge). 한자어 등 한국어 어휘 구조를 다룬 표준 문헌. https://www.cambridge.org/9780521369435
  • SOV-Wortstellung, das Fehlen von Genus, der als Suffix realisierte Artikel (-a/-ak) und die Ergativ–Absolutiv-Ausrichtung (-k) folgen der Norm der Euskaltzaindia (Real Academia de la Lengua Vasca). https://www.euskaltzaindia.eus/
  • SpanishDict. vortaro, konjugacioj kaj lecionoj kun ekzemploj https://www.spanishdict.com/
  • Stephen D. Krashen, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition (Oxford; New York: Pergamon Press, 1982). https://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf
  • Stephen D. Krashen, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1982), http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf. http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf
  • Sumerian is a language isolate of ancient southern Mesopotamia, the language of the earliest writing (cuneiform, from c. 3100 BCE); it died out as a spoken language c. 2000 BCE but survived as a scholarly/liturgical language. See “Sumerian language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_language
  • Super Easy Cantonese. beginner-friendly YouTube content. https://www.youtube.com/@SuperEasyCantonese
  • Super le orthographia regular, le consonantes duple e le sonos c/g, gli, gn, sc, vide „phonologia italian“ (Treccani). https://www.treccani.it/
  • Super le umlauts (ä ö ü), le ß, le majuscula del substantivos e le prononciation, vide „orthographia german“ (Duden). https://www.duden.de/
  • Sur le systeme de numeration quinaire-decimal du wolof, cf. l'etude comparee des systemes numeraux du peul et du wolof, African Humanities (CEJSH). https://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-77d1bd17-2a73-4217-94c8-aa9f8a8871c5
  • Swahili (Kiswahili) ist eine Bantusprache, Verkehrssprache Ostafrikas, von über 100 Millionen Menschen (meist als L2) verstanden, Amtssprache in Tansania und Kenia; lateinische, lautgetreue Schrift. Siehe „Swahili (Sprache)“. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_(Sprache)
  • Tagalog.com. Diccionario, conjugador y lecciones con audio, util para autodidactas. https://www.tagalog.com/
  • Te Whanake (kupu.maori.nz / Te Whanake resources). widely used self-study series by John Moorfield https://www.tewhanake.maori.nz/
  • Teach Yourself Kazakh / Soyle resources. Sozdik.kz, a widely used Kazakh–Russian–English online dictionary. https://sozdik.kz/
  • Tentang kekerabatan Austronesia (Melayu-Polinesia) dan pergeseran bunyi yang teratur, lih. Robert Blust, The Austronesian Languages (Canberra: ANU, 2013) dan Blust & Trussel, Austronesian Comparative Dictionary. https://www.trussel2.com/ACD/
  • TestDaF (독일어 능력 시험). 독일 대학 입학이나 취업 비자에 필요한 공인 독일어 시험. 목표로 삼으면 학습에 방향이 생깁니다. https://www.testdaf.de/
  • Texas German Dialect Project (tgdp.org), University of Texas at Austin, Leitung Hans C. Boas — laufende Dokumentation mit Interviewaufnahmen der letzten Sprecher; Quelle für Dialektausgleich in amerikanisch-deutschen Varietäten (abgerufen 2026-07-03). https://tgdp.org/
  • Textkit — free Greek textbooks & forum. public-domain grammars and a study community https://www.textkit.com/
  • Thackston — Kurmanji Kurdish reference grammar (PDF). A free, scholarly reference grammar of Kurmanji with readings, hosted by Harvard. https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Kurmanji/
  • Thalassian Language blog — fan root-extraction analysis of the official corpus; source of the 'hypothesis layer' framing in §5. http://thalassianlanguage.blogspot.com/
  • The Aztec/Mexica language is Nahuatl, a Uto-Aztecan language; Classical Nahuatl is the 16th-century form richly documented in colonial sources (Molina, the Florentine Codex). Nahuatl remains spoken by roughly 1.5 million people today. See “Nahuatl.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl
  • The case system, the declined definite article, and the active/middle/passive voice system follow the standard reference: Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920), hosted on the Perseus Digital Library. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0007
  • The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (CAD), free PDFs. the monumental Akkadian dictionary https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/assyrian-dictionary-oriental-institute-university-chicago-cad
  • The Dwarrow Scholar — Neo-Khuzdul dictionaries, grammar and phrase conventions (Shamukh, Âkminrûk zu, layer-labelling ethic), and documentation of David Salo's film Dwarvish sources. Fan-made source, used with that caveat throughout. https://dwarrowscholar.wordpress.com/
  • The Inca Empire's administrative language was Quechua (Runasimi); the Incas kept records on khipu (knotted cords), not an alphabetic script. Quechua remains spoken by an estimated 8–10 million people across the Andes. See “Quechua.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechua
  • The Language Construction Kit (Mark Rosenfelder). The classic free primer on how to actually build a language — the on-ramp for three decades of conlangers. https://www.zompist.com/kit.html
  • Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (TLA). scholarly corpus and dictionary https://thesaurus-linguae-aegyptiae.de/
  • Til-Qural / Kazakça ögronme kaynaklari. Baslangiç dersleri ve dil bilgisi materyalleri. https://kazakhtili.kz/
  • Tlingit Phrases, Colors and Greetings (Chilkat Indian Village). community phrase list https://chilkat-nsn.gov/tlingit-phrases-colors-and-greetings/
  • tokio.cervantes.es. Para hispanohablantes residentes en Japón, el Instituto Cervantes de Tokio ofrece actividades culturales y puede orientar sobre recursos de aprendizaje de japonés. tokio.cervantes.es https://tokio.cervantes.es/
  • Tomoko Nakanishi, "A Meta-Analysis of Extensive Reading Research," TESOL Quarterly 49, no. 1 (2015): 6–37, https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.157. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.157
  • Ton Dijkstra and Walter J. B. van Heuven, "The Architecture of the Bilingual Word Recognition System: From Identification to Decision," Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 5, no. 3 (2002): 175–197, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728902003012. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728902003012
  • Treccani (dictionar si enciclopedie). Dictionarul de referinta al limbii italiene. https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/
  • TRT (radio es televizio). Torok kozszolgalati media: valodi nyelv hallgatashoz. https://www.trt.net.tr/
  • TUKI — Kamusi ya Kiswahili (Instituto de Estudios de Kiswahili). diccionario suajili-inglés de referencia https://swahili-dictionary.com/
  • TUKI Kamusi (جامعة دار السلام). معجم معهد البحوث السواحيلية (TATAKI) بجامعة دار السلام. https://www.elimuyetu.co.tz/subjects/arts/swa-eng/
  • Turk Dil Kurumu (TDK) szotar. A torok nyelv hivatalos szotara es nyelvi forrasa. https://sozluk.gov.tr/
  • Türkmen dili (sözlük ve dil kaynaklari). Türkmen dili devlet sözlük ve yazim kaynaklari. https://sozluk.gov.tm/
  • Türkmenistan döwlet habarlar (TDH). Türkmen devlet haber ajansi: okuma ve güncel dil için. https://tdh.gov.tm/
  • TV3 / 3Cat. Catalonia's public broadcaster: news, drama and the famous Polònia for authentic listening. https://www.ccma.cat/tv3/
  • tv5monde.com. Canal televisivo público francófono disponível em Portugal e no Brasil via satélite e streaming. Oferece legendas em francês em quase todos os programas — ideal para associar som e escrita. tv5monde.com https://www.tv5monde.com/
  • TVR (Televiziunea Romana). Radiotelevisione pubblica rumena in streaming: notiziari, documentari, serie. https://www.tvr.ro/
  • TVRI / Indonesische media. Indonesische publieke omroep: echt taalgebruik om te beluisteren. https://www.tvri.go.id/
  • Tzu-Yin Lee, Yun-Chi Ho, and Che-Han Chen, "Integrating Intercultural Communicative Competence into an Online EFL Classroom: An Empirical Study of a Secondary School in Thailand," Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education 8, no. 4 (2023), https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40862-022-00174-1. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40862-022-00174-1
  • Ulrike Jessner, "A DST Model of Multilingualism and the Role of Metalinguistic Awareness," The Modern Language Journal 92, no. 2 (2008): 270–283, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00718.x. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00718.x
  • Ulrike Jessner, Linguistic Awareness in Multilinguals: English as a Third Language (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006). https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Linguistic%20Awareness%20in%20Multilinguals%20English%20as%20a%20Third%20Language%20Jessner
  • UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010 reclassification of Cornish from ‘extinct’ to ‘critically endangered’), reported via “Cornish language,” Wikipedia; speaker estimates (~500 fluent; ~2,000 conversational) vary by definition because Cornish is a revived language. European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages recognition. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_language
  • Unquachog (Unkechaug) is a Southern New England Eastern Algonquian variety of Long Island, closely related to Quiripi, dormant and thinly documented (cf. Jefferson’s 1791 wordlist). See “Quiripi language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiripi_language
  • UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino. Diccionario filipino de referencia academica. https://www.kwf.gov.ph/diksiyonaryo-ng-wikang-filipino/
  • Upopoy — National Ainu Museum and Park. museum, language & culture programmes https://ainu-upopoy.jp/en/
  • upopoy.jp. 2020年に開設された国立アイヌ民族博物館。言語教育プログラムを実施しており、現在のアイヌ語復興活動の中心地。upopoy.jp https://upopoy.jp/
  • Usito, dictionnaire général du français sous la direction d'Hélène Cajolet-Laganière, Pierre Martel et Chantal-Édith Masson, Université de Sherbrooke — dictionnaire de référence du français québécois standard ; vérification des entrées char, magasiner, dépanneur, blonde, chum, tuque, frette, pantoute (recoupement effectué lors des passes 2026-06-27 et 2026-07-02). Confiance : élevée. https://usito.usherbrooke.ca/
  • UzbekClass / Uzbekistan dil kaynaklari. Baslangiç için dersler ve temel söz dagarcigi. https://uzbekclass.com/
  • Vajehyab. قواميس فارسية متعدّدة في موضع واحد—مفيد لتتبّع الأصل العربي. https://www.vajehyab.com/
  • Valdman, A., Rottet, K. J. et al. (2010). Dictionary of Louisiana French: As Spoken in Cajun, Creole, and American Indian Communities. University Press of Mississippi (ISBN 978-1-60473-403-4) — référence lexicographique : char, asteur, icitte, cocodril, gombo, cher/chère, mais d'insistance, fais do-do. Confiance : élevée. https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/D/Dictionary-of-Louisiana-French
  • Verb-first (VSO) order, the present tense of bod, the indefinite-article gap, and the initial consonant mutations follow the standard reference: Gareth King, Modern Welsh: A Comprehensive Grammar, 3rd ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_grammar
  • Vikipetã (Wikipedia en guaraní). Lectura auténtica para ampliar vocabulario. https://gn.wikipedia.org/
  • Visão geral do isiXhosa. Contexto sobre cliques, classes e ortografia. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_xhosa
  • Visão geral do isiZulu. Orientação sobre cliques, classes e ortografia. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_zulu
  • Visão geral do shona. Orientação sobre dialetos, classes e ortografia. https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_xona
  • Vitrine linguistique, Office québécois de la langue française — usages recommandés (fin de semaine, courriel, magasiner) et fiches sur les québécismes. Confiance : élevée. https://vitrinelinguistique.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/
  • Vivian Cook, "Going beyond the Native Speaker in Language Teaching," TESOL Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1999): 185–209, https://doi.org/10.2307/3587717. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587717
  • Vocabulary, greetings (Azul, Tanemmirt, Amek, Ayyuh/Wah, Uhu) and the native numerals are drawn from Amazigh teaching and reference resources: the Amawal dictionary and linguistic atlas, IRCAM's Dictionnaire Général de la Langue Amazighe (DGLAi), the High Commission for Amazighity (HCA, Algeria), and 'How to count in Tamazight' (Languages and Numbers); transliterations vary, and Arabic numerals are common in everyday speech. https://www.amazigh.online/
  • VSO order with pre-verbal tense/aspect particles (ka, kua, e…ana, i), the articles te/ngā/he, and the a/o possession categories follow the standard learner references of Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori and the Te Aka Māori Dictionary. https://maoridictionary.co.nz/
  • VTV（越南国家电视台）. 地道的越南语新闻与节目，用于听力。 https://vtv.vn/
  • Vulcan Language Dictionary (community) — Starbase-10. Long-running Golic Vulcan dictionary continuing the Vulcan Language Institute's work. The main community vocabulary reference. https://www.starbase-10.de/vld/
  • Wagner, Yuchi Tales (1931, Internet Archive). transcribed oral texts https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_yuc_vertxt-2
  • Walisische Sprache (Überblick). Einordnung, Geschichte, Status https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walisische_Sprache
  • wanikani.com. Sistema de repetición espaciada para aprender kanji y vocabulario japonés mediante historias mnemónicas visuales. Lleva desde cero hasta los ~2.000 kanji jōyō de forma estructurada y progresiva. Los primeros tres niveles son gratuitos; el resto requiere suscripción. wanikani.com https://www.wanikani.com/
  • Wehewehe Wikiwiki. The combined online Hawaiian dictionaries (Pukui-Elbert and more); the essential reference. https://wehewehe.org/
  • Western Abenaki is an Abenakian Eastern Algonquian language of Vermont/New Hampshire/Québec, dormant with immersion revival. See “Abenaki language.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki_language
  • Western Abenaki Online Dictionary. Abenaki word lookup https://westernabenaki.com/
  • Wheelock's Latin. the classic grammar-and-translation course; thorough, if drier https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelock%27s_Latin
  • Wikipedia (deutsch) — Bairische Dialekte. Klassifikation, Lautlehre, Grammatiktabellen, Status https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bairische_Dialekte
  • Wikipedia & UNESCO endangered-language pages. Overview of the phonology, grammar, and preservation status. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeju_language
  • Wikitufe. Diccionarios mapudungun–español accesibles para consulta. https://www.facebook.com/Wikitufe/
  • Wiktionary — Proto-Germanic reconstructions. reconstructed lexicon (marked with *) https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Germanic_language
  • Wiktionary 汉越词条目. 系统查阅汉越词及其汉字本字。 https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Sino-Vietnamese_words
  • Wôpanâak (Wampanoag) is the reawakened Massachusett language, revived by the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project (Jessie Little Doe Baird). See “Massachusett language” and the WLRP. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusett_language
  • Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project. community reclamation program https://www.wlrp.org/
  • WordReference / Reverso. Diccionarios con ejemplos reales y foros. https://www.wordreference.com/iten/
  • WordReference ES-RO / SpanishDict. Dictionar bidirectional cu exemple si conjugator. https://www.wordreference.com/
  • WordReference FR-EN. 불영 사전 + 활용표 + 용례 포럼. 의미·용법 확인에 매우 유용합니다. 전 레벨 https://www.wordreference.com/fren/
  • WordReference. 스페인어-영어 사전 + 동사 활용표 + 포럼. 문법·어휘 확인에 유용. https://www.wordreference.com/es/en/translation.asp
  • wordreference.com/fres. El mejor diccionario bilingüe en línea, con foros de consulta y ejemplos de uso real. Imprescindible. wordreference.com/fres https://www.wordreference.com/fres/
  • wordreference.com/frit. Il miglior dizionario bilingue online, con forum di consultazione ed esempi di uso reale. Indispensabile. wordreference.com/frit https://www.wordreference.com/frit/
  • wordreference.com/frpt. O melhor dicionário bilingue online, com fórum de consulta e exemplos de uso real. Indispensável. wordreference.com/frpt https://www.wordreference.com/frpt/
  • Yeda Pessoa de Castro, Falares Africanos na Bahia: um vocabulario afro-brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro: Academia Brasileira de Letras / Topbooks, 2001); cf. Nei Lopes, Novo Dicionario Banto do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Pallas, 2003). https://www.academia.org.br/
  • YesAsia.com. importer of Hong Kong media; recommended for acquiring DVDs with original Cantonese audio tracks. https://www.yesasia.com/
  • Yoruba Lessons & YouTube channels. Tone drills and beginner courses. https://www.yorubalessons.com/
  • Yorùbá overview. Background on tone, vowels and grammar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_language
  • Yuchi (Euchee) — Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. people, history & language status https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=YU001
  • Yuchi Language Project — community revitalisation through master–apprentice teams, children's immersion and the Yuchi Immersion School (opened 2018); see also First Nations Development Institute, “The Yuchi Language Comes Home.” https://www.yuchilanguage.org/
  • Yurok Language Department (Yurok Tribe), “'O sley-goych (Village 1: Introductions),” on the naming verb and person prefixes — 'new / k'ew / 'wew ('my/your/his-her name is'), the full forms 'ney-wo-lek' / k'ey-wo-lek' / 'wey-wo-lek', the 'come-from' verb with its short forms ('ne-mew' / k'e-mew' / 'ue-mew'), and the nickname verb wey-go-noy-ek', taught with elder audio. https://www.yuroklanguage.com/village-learning-pathway/o-sley-goych-village-1-introductions
  • Yurok Language Department (Yurok Tribe), “Greetings,” on Aiy-ye-kwee' as a heartfelt greeting that may be addressed to people and to important places, with its drawn-out final vowel intensifying feeling, and on the gendered casual greetings. https://www.yuroklanguage.com/language-domains/greetings
  • zbfgrk.org. Hong Kong–based bookstore with international shipping; good source for graphic novels & Cantonese-language books. https://www.zbfgrk.org/
  • Zoltán Dörnyei, "The L2 Motivational Self System," in Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self, ed. Zoltán Dörnyei and Ema Ushioda (Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2009), 9–42. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Dornyei%20The%20L2%20Motivational%20Self%20System%20Motivation%20Language%20Identity
  • Ґете-Інститут Україна. Курси та іспити (Goethe-Zertifikat) в Україні та за кордоном; сайт доступний українською. https://www.goethe.de/ins/ua/uk/index.html
  • إذاعة BBC Swahili. أخبار ومقالات وصوت بالسواحيلية المعيارية للاستماع والقراءة. https://www.bbc.com/swahili
  • عبارات کاربردی ارمنی (Omniglot). مجموعه‌ای از عبارات روزمره با تلفظ. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/armenian.php
  • عبارات کاربردی گرجی (Omniglot). مجموعه‌ای از عبارات روزمره با تلفظ. https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/georgian.php
  • قاموس Glosbe عربي–هوسا. قاموس مع جُمل أمثلة. https://glosbe.com/ar/ha
  • نظرة عامة على الهوسا. خلفية عن النبر والجنس وخط بوكو. https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7
  • बांग्ला भाषा — परिचय. परिचय सभी स्तर — लिपि, ध्वनि और व्याकरण की पृष्ठभूमि। https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE
  • ਗੋਏਥੇ ਇੰਸਟੀਚਿਊਟ ਭਾਰਤ. ਭਾਰਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਜਰਮਨ ਕੋਰਸ ਅਤੇ ਇਮਤਿਹਾਨਾਂ ਲਈ। https://www.goethe.de/ins/in/en/index.html
  • 광둥어가 중고한어의 입성 운미 -p, -t, -k를 보존한다는 점에 관해, cf. Stephen Matthews and Virginia Yip, Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), 'Tones' and 'Finals'; '입성(checked tone)'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checked_tone
  • 네이버 독일어사전. 발음 기호·예문·동사 활용표를 갖춘 무료 독일어↔한국어 사전. 모바일에서도 편리. https://dict.naver.com/dekodict/
  • 네이버 스페인어사전. 발음 기호·예문·활용형을 갖춘 무료 스페인어↔한국어 사전. 모바일에서도 편리. https://dict.naver.com/eskodict/
  • 네이버 프랑스어사전. 발음기호·예문·동사 활용표를 갖춘 무료 프랑스어↔한국어 사전. 모바일에서도 편리하게 사용할 수 있습니다. 전 레벨 https://dict.naver.com/frkodict/
  • 세르반테스 문화원 서울(Instituto Cervantes Seúl). 스페인 정부 공식 어학 기관. 서울 강좌·도서관·DELE 시험 정보. https://seoul.cervantes.es/
  • 알리앙스 프랑세즈 서울 (Alliance Française de Séoul). 비영리 프랑스어 교육 기관. 서울 외 부산에도 지점이 있으며, 다양한 회화·문화 프로그램을 제공합니다. 전 레벨 https://www.afseoul.com/
  • 주한 독일문화원 (Goethe-Institut Korea). 서울 소재. A1부터 C2까지 전 레벨 강좌와 국제 공인 괴테 시험(Goethe-Zertifikat) 응시 가능. 독일어 학습의 가장 공신력 있는 기관. https://www.goethe.de/ins/kr/ko/index.html
  • 주한 프랑스 문화원 (Institut français de Corée). 서울 소재. A1~C2 전 레벨 코스와 공식 자격 DELF/DALF 시험을 볼 수 있습니다. 프랑스 정부가 운영하는 가장 공신력 있는 기관입니다. 전 레벨 https://www.institutfrancais-coree.com/
  • 표준(하노이) 베트남어의 여섯 성조(ngang, huyền, sắc, hỏi, ngã, nặng)에 관해, cf. Laurence C. Thompson, A Vietnamese Reference Grammar (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1987); 'Vietnamese phonology'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology
  • 한국어 어휘의 약 60~70%가 한자어라는 점에 관해, cf. Ho-min Sohn, The Korean Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 'Sino-Korean vocabulary'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Korean_vocabulary
  • 한월어 읽기가 8세기경(당대) 중고한어 음운을 반영하며 한국 한자음과 같은 기원을 공유한다는 점에 관해, cf. Nguyễn Đình-Hòa, Vietnamese (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1997); 'Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary
  • 홍콩언어학학회(LSHK) 粵拼(Jyutping) 안내. 광둥어 병음 표준 https://lshk.org/jyutping-scheme/
  • アンスティチュ・フランセ日本（Institut français du Japon）. フランス政府公式の語学・文化機関。東京・横浜・大阪・名古屋・関西に拠点があり、A1〜C2のコースと公式資格 DELF/DALF を取得できます。全レベル https://www.institutfrancais.jp/tokyo/
  • ウィキペディア・ユネスコ危機言語資料. 音韻・文法の概観と保存状況。 https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%88%E5%B7%9E%E8%AA%9E
  • セルバンテス文化センター東京（Instituto Cervantes）. スペイン政府公式の語学機関。講座・図書館・DELE 検定の情報。 https://tokio.cervantes.es/jp/
  • 台山話資源網（Taishanese Language Home）. 字典、拼音與音檔，學台山話最實用的網站。 https://www.taishandict.com/
  • 台湾教育部《台湾闽南语常用词辞典》. — 权威线上辞典，附发音与例句。 https://sutian.moe.edu.tw/
  • 台湾教育部《客语辞典》. — 权威线上客语辞典，附发音。 https://hakkadict.moe.edu.tw/
  • 吴语协会 / 吴语学堂. 吴语拼音、发音教程与社群，学上海话的重要平台。 http://wu-chinese.com/
  • 客家委员会（台湾）. — 客语学习与文化资源。 https://www.hakka.gov.tw/
  • 日中の漢字の「空似言葉」(false friends) と新字体・簡体字の差異について、cf. 'Sino-Japanese vocabulary' および 'Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters'. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary
  • 法国文化协会中国（Institut français de Chine）. 法国政府在华文化机构，在成都、重庆、北京、上海、武汉、沈阳、西安均设有中心，提供语言课程、文化活动及 DELF/DALF 考试报名服务。 全级别 https://www.institutfrancais-chine.com/
  • 法语联盟中国（Alliance Française Chine）. 在北京、上海、成都、广州等多个城市设有分部，提供 A1–C2 全级别课程，并可参加官方 DELF/DALF 认证考试。是最权威的法语学习机构之一。 全级别 https://www.alliancefrancaise.cn/
  • 现代汉语词典 / 汉典. 漢字・熟語のピンインと意味を調べられる定番の中国語辞典サイト。 https://www.zdic.net/
  • 維基百科：Taishanese. 聲韻系統與對應規律的概覽。 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taishanese
  • 越南语常用语（Omniglot）. 常用短语与发音。 https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/vietnamese.php
  • 闽东语汉字—罗马字转换器. 罗马字转换器 中级 — 汉字与 BUC 互转的实用工具。 https://transliterationtools.blogspot.com/2023/11/eastern-min-conversion-tool.html